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Article History

Received: 8 July 2025

Revised: 10 September 2025

Accepted: 13 October 2025

First Online: 28 November 2025

Competing interests

: IM is a consultant of Osasuna Therapeutics. GK has been holding research contracts with Daiichi Sankyo, Eleor, Kaleido, Lytix Pharma, PharmaMar, Osasuna Therapeutics, Samsara Therapeutics, Sanofi, Sutro, Tollys, and Vascage. GK is on the Board of Directors of the Bristol Myers Squibb Foundation France. GK is a scientific co-founder of everImmune, Osasuna Therapeutics, Samsara Therapeutics and Therafast Bio. GK is in the scientific advisory boards of Hevolution, Institut Servier, and Rejuveron Life Sciences/Centenara Labs AG. GK is the inventor of patents covering therapeutic targeting of aging, cancer, cystic fibrosis and metabolic disorders. Among these patents, one “Methods for weight reduction” (US11905330B1) is relevant to this study. GK’s brother, Romano Kroemer, was an employee of Sanofi and now consults for Boehringer-Ingelheim. GK’s wife, Laurence Zitvogel, has held research contracts with Glaxo Smyth Kline, Incyte, Lytix, Kaleido, Innovate Pharma, Daiichi Sankyo, Pilege, Merus, Transgene, 9 m, Tusk and Roche, was on the on the Board of Directors of Transgene, is a co-founder of everImmune, and holds patents covering the treatment of cancer and the therapeutic manipulation of the microbiota. MCM is the inventor of a patent covering therapeutic targeting of cancer, not relevant with this study. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

: Mice were bred and maintained according to the Federation of European Laboratory Animal Science Associations (FELASA) guidelines, and approved by the local Animal Experimental Ethics Committee (project number #25000-2020040718432518v4). Animals were allowed to acclimate for one week, provided with food ad libitum, and housed collectively in a temperature-controlled environment with 12-h light-dark cycles. The size of mice groups ( n  = 20) was estimated based on previous investigations [ ]. Randomization was performed using the software RandoMice.