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Article History

Received: 18 August 2025

Revised: 26 January 2026

Accepted: 5 March 2026

First Online: 25 March 2026

Competing interests

: JS and SAC were employees of UCB Pharma during the course of this study. VMA and SD are employees of UCB Pharma and may be stockholders. AS reports personal fees or research funding from Angelini Pharma, Biocodex, Desitin Arzneimittel, Eisai, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Longboard, Neuraxpharm, Takeda, UCB, and UNEEG. FR has received Honoraria for scientific advice and as a speaker: Angelini Pharma, Eisai Pharma,Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Roche Pharma, Stoke Therapeutics, Takeda, and UCB Pharma. Research support: European Union (EU-FP7), German Research Foundation (DFG), Federal State of Hesse, Germany, Detlev-Wrobel-Fonds for Epilepsy Research, Reiss-Stiftung, Dr. Senckenbergische Stiftung, Kassel-Stiftung, Ernst Max von Grunelius-Stiftung, Chaja-Stiftung, Desitin Arzneimittel, Dr. Schär Deutschland GmbH, Nutricia Milupa GmbH, and Vitaflo Deutschland GmbH. JPS has received honoraria for presentations, educational events and advisory board participation from GSK, Boehringer Ingelheim, Med-Update, Roche, Novocure, Seagen, Servier and Med-Update. MWR has received research funding from UCB as well as honoraria for advisory board participation from Alexion and Servier. MWR has received research funding from UCB (independent research grant) for this project, as well as honoraria for advisory board participation from Alexion and Servier. All other authors declare that they have no competing interests.

: Ethics approval was granted by the ethics committee of the University Hospital Frankfurt (reference number SNO-1-2019). Informed consent was obtained from all participants. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. The study was performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.