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Article History

Received: 24 February 2025

Revised: 30 July 2025

Accepted: 12 September 2025

First Online: 19 September 2025

Competing interests

: HDJH – No conflicts of interest JE – No conflicts of interest. MDT – No conflicts of interest MP is an officer of a company offering consultancy services to manufacturers of Software as a Medical Device. SJT has acted on advisory boards for Bayer and Roche, received travel and speaker fees for Bayer, Roche, Heidelberg engineering, Alimera Sciences LTD and research support from Bayer, Roche, Boehringer Ingelheim, Janssen Pharmaceuticals and Alexion Pharmaceuticals. PJP has acted as a consultant for Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Genentech and Roche. He has received travel support from Bayer and Roche. KB has received speaker fees from Novartis, Bayer, Roche, and Boehringer-Ingelheim; equity in READ AI; meeting or travel fees from Novartis and Bayer; compensation for being on an advisory board from Novartis and Roche; consulting fees from Roche and Boehringer-Ingelheim; research support from Apellis, Novartis, and Bayer. GM – No conflicts of interest. PAK has acted as a consultant for Retina Consultants of America, Topcon, Roche, Boehringer-Ingelheim, and Bitfount and is an equity owner in Big Picture Medical. He has received speaker fees from Zeiss, Novartis, Gyroscope, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Apellis, Roche, AbbVie, Topcon, and Hakim Group. He has received travel support from Bayer, Topcon, and Roche. He has attended advisory boards for Topcon, Bayer, Boehringer-Ingelheim, RetinAI, and Novartis.

: Ethical approval was granted for this work by the Greater Manchester South Research Ethics Committee, reference 21/NW/0138.