Howerton, Emily https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0639-3728
Contamin, Lucie https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5797-1279
Mullany, Luke C. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4668-9803
Qin, Michelle https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0391-6527
Reich, Nicholas G.
Bents, Samantha
Borchering, Rebecca K. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4309-2913
Jung, Sung-mok https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0787-4515
Loo, Sara L. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9763-5587
Smith, Claire P.
Levander, John https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4475-896X
Kerr, Jessica
Espino, J. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8104-2656
van Panhuis, Willem G.
Hochheiser, Harry https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8793-9982
Galanti, Marta
Yamana, Teresa https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8349-3151
Pei, Sen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7072-2995
Shaman, Jeffrey https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7216-7809
Rainwater-Lovett, Kaitlin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8707-7339
Kinsey, Matt
Tallaksen, Kate
Wilson, Shelby
Shin, Lauren
Lemaitre, Joseph C. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2677-6574
Kaminsky, Joshua
Hulse, Juan Dent
Lee, Elizabeth C. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4156-9637
McKee, Clifton D.
Hill, Alison https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6583-3623
Karlen, Dean
Chinazzi, Matteo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5955-1929
Davis, Jessica T.
Mu, Kunpeng
Xiong, Xinyue
Pastore y Piontti, Ana
Vespignani, Alessandro https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3419-4205
Rosenstrom, Erik T. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7755-0559
Ivy, Julie S.
Mayorga, Maria E.
Swann, Julie L.
España, Guido
Cavany, Sean
Moore, Sean https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9062-6100
Perkins, Alex https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7518-4014
Hladish, Thomas
Pillai, Alexander
Ben Toh, Kok
Longini, Ira Jr.
Chen, Shi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2316-111X
Paul, Rajib
Janies, Daniel
Thill, Jean-Claude
Bouchnita, Anass
Bi, Kaiming https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6234-6232
Lachmann, Michael
Fox, Spencer J. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1969-3778
Meyers, Lauren Ancel
Srivastava, Ajitesh https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8706-5717
Porebski, Przemyslaw https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8012-5791
Venkatramanan, Srini https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0874-8692
Adiga, Aniruddha
Lewis, Bryan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0793-6082
Klahn, Brian https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4690-9944
Outten, Joseph
Hurt, Benjamin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3803-2900
Chen, Jiangzhuo
Mortveit, Henning
Wilson, Amanda https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4778-5744
Marathe, Madhav
Hoops, Stefan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8503-8371
Bhattacharya, Parantapa
Machi, Dustin
Cadwell, Betsy L.
Healy, Jessica M. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1149-2285
Slayton, Rachel B.
Johansson, Michael A. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5090-7722
Biggerstaff, Matthew https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5108-8311
Truelove, Shaun https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0538-0607
Runge, Michael C. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8081-536X
Shea, Katriona https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7607-8248
Viboud, Cécile https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3243-4711
Lessler, Justin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9741-8109
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Science Foundation (DEB-2028301, DEB-2037885, DEB-2126278 and DEB-2220903)
The Eberly College of Science Barbara McClintock Science Achievement Graduate Scholarship in Biology is a graduate fellowship funded through the Pennsylvania State University.
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute of General Medical Sciences (5U24GM132013, 5U24GM132013, 5U24GM132013)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute of General Medical Sciences
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute of General Medical Sciences
Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (Cooperative Agreement no. NU38OT000297, Cooperative Agreement no. NU38OT000297, Cooperative Agreement no. NU38OT000297, NU38OT000297, NU38OT000297, NU38OT000297, NU38OT000297, NU38OT000297, NU38OT000297, NU38OT000297, NU38OT000297)
Virginia Department of Health (PV-BII, and COVID-19 Modeling Program VDH-21-501-0135, PV-BII, and COVID-19 Modeling Program VDH-21-501-0135, PV-BII, and COVID-19 Modeling Program VDH-21-501-0135)
Article History
Received: 7 July 2023
Accepted: 17 October 2023
First Online: 20 November 2023
Competing interests
: J.E. is president of General Biodefense LLC, a private consulting group for public health informatics and has interest in READE.ai, a medical artificial intelligence solutions company. JS and Columbia University disclose partial ownership of SK Analytics. JS discloses consulting for BNI. M.C.R. reports stock ownership in Becton Dickinson & Co., which manufactures medical equipment used in COVID-19 testing, vaccination, and treatment. J.L. has served as an expert witness on cases where the likely length of the pandemic was of issue. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.