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Article History

Received: 27 February 2024

Accepted: 31 October 2024

First Online: 28 November 2024

Competing interests

: E.Y.F.W. has received research grants from the Health Bureau of the Government of the Hong Kong SAR, the Hong Kong Research Grant Council, National Natural Science Foundation of China, outside the submitted work. I.C.K.W. reports research funding from Amgen, Bristol Myers Squibb, Pfizer, Janssen, Bayer, GSK, Novartis, the Hong Kong Research Grants Council, the Hong Kong Health and Medical Research Fund, the National Institute for Health Research in England, the European Commission, and the National Health and Medical Research Council in Australia, consulting fees from IQVIA and World Health Organisation, payment for expert testimony for Appeal Court of Hong Kong, outside the submitted work; and is a non-executive director of Jacobson Medical in Hong Kong, Advance Data Analytics for Medical Science (ADAMS) Limited (HK), Asia Medicine Regulatory Affairs (AMERA) Services Limited and OCUS Innovation Limited (HK, Ireland and UK) a former director of Therakind in England, outside of the submitted work; I.C.K.W. reports role as member of Pharmacy and Poisons Board in Hong Kong, the Expert Committee on Clinical Events Assessment Following COVID-19 Immunisation, and the Advisory Panel on COVID-19 Vaccines of the Hong Kong Government, outside the submitted work. C.S.L.C. has received grants from the Health Bureau of the Hong Kong Government, the Hong Kong Research Grants Council, the Hong Kong Innovation and Technology Commission, Pfizer, IQVIA, and Amgen, and personal fees from Prime Vigilance, outside the submitted work. E.W.Y.C. reports honoraria from the Hospital Authority and grants from the Hong Kong Research Grants Council, the Research Fund Secretariat of the Food and Health Bureau, the National Natural Science Fund of China, the Wellcome Trust, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Pfizer, Janssen, Amgen, Takeda, RGA Reinsurance Company, AstraZeneca, the Narcotics Division of the Security Bureau of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Innovation and Technology Commission of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Novartis, National Health and Medical Research Council Australia, outside the submitted work. Francisco Tsz Tsun Lai are partially supported by the Laboratory of Data Discovery for Health (D24H) funded by AIR@InnoHK administered by the Innovation and Technology Commission, outside the submitted work. X.L. received research grants from the Research Fund Secretariat of the Health Bureau, Health and Medical Research Fund (HMRF, HKSAR), Health and Medical Research Fund Fellowship Scheme (HMRF Fellowship, HKSAR), Research Grants Council Early Career Scheme (RGC/ECS, HKSAR), Research Grants Council Research Impact Fund (RGC/RIF, HKSAR), Commission grants from Hospital Authority of Hong Kong; educational and investigator initiate research fund from Janssen and Pfizer; internal funding from the University of Hong Kong; consultancy fee from Pfizer, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Open Health; she is also the former non-executive director of ADAMS Limited Hong Kong; all outside the submitted work. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.