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Article History

Received: 25 April 2025

Accepted: 22 August 2025

First Online: 29 September 2025

Competing interests

: J.C.P. reports Institutional research funding provided by A2 Biotherapeutics, ALX Oncology, Ankyra Therapeutics, and Inhibrx. B.C. has served in an advisory role for Merck. He has received honorarium from Clinigen Group and Sanofi, and institutional research funding from Bristol-Myers Squibb and the Clinigen Group. B.C. reports a patent for Biomarkers OX40 response. M.B. has served in an advisory role for Adaptimmune, EMD Serono, Genzyme, Glaxosmithkline, IDEAYA Biosciences, Immunocore, Immunovaccine, InstilBio, Iovance Biotherapeutics, LaRoche Posay, Medison, Novartis, Pfizer, Regeneron, Sun Pharma, and Merck. He received honorarium from Bristol-Myers Squibb, Merck, Novartis, Roche, and Sanofi. M.B. also received research funding and provided expert testimony for Merck. E.W.-K. reports he serves as a consultant for Delcath, Boston Scientific, Emblox, and Sirtex. He is the co-founder of Cytosite and AbscoTx. E.W.-K. serves on an Advisory Board for Delcath and as a member of the Independent Data Monitoring Committee for Replimume. J.E., S.B., and G.I. report employment at Ankyra Therapeutics. R.T. holds stock in Ankyra Therapeutics and is a former employee. H.K. has served in an advisory role at Castle Biosciences, Marengo Therapeutics, Midatech Pharma, Tatum Bioscience, and Virogin Biotech. He reports employment at Ankyra Therapeutics and holds stock in Immuneering and Replimune. H.K. reports honorarium at the Society of Immunotherapy for Cancer. J.M.K. served in an advisory role for Amgen, Ankyra Therapeutics, Applied Clinical Intelligence, AXIO Research, Becker Pharmaceutic, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Cancer Network, Cancer Study group, Checkmate Pharmaceuticals, Cytomx Therapeutics, DermTech, Fenix Group International, Harbour BioMed, Immunocore, iOnctura, Iovance Biotherapeutics, IQVIA, Scopus Biopharma, SR One Capital Management, Takeda, Valar Labs, Istari Ocology, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Lytix Biopharma, Magnolia Innovation, Merck, Natara, Novartis, Oncocyte, Oncosec, PATHAI, Pfizer, Piper Sandler, PyrOjas Corporation, Regeneron, and Replimune. Institutional research funding provided by Amgen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Checkmate Pharmaceuticals, Harbour BioMed, Immunocore, Immvira, Iovance Biotherapeutics, Lion Biotechnologies, Novartis, Takeda, and Verastem. J.M.K. has received travel accommodation and expenses from Ankyra Therapeutics, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Checkmate Pharmaceuticals, Iovance Biotherapeutics, and Regeneron.