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Article History

Received: 28 March 2024

Accepted: 27 August 2025

First Online: 30 September 2025

Competing interests

: D.S., B.S., MaMa, P.H., O.R.O., S.H., G.T., A.B., C.W., M.B., M.G. and I.A. do not report competing interests. M.T.: Numab Therapeutics (employment and equity or stocks). K.L.: LNS Laboratoire national de santé (employment). P.J.: Thermo Fisher Scientific (employment). S.S.P.: Novartis (honoraria), Diaceutics Ireland Limited, Merck (Schweiz) AG, AstraZeneca AG (consulting or advisory role). M.N.: AstraZeneca PLC (employment and equity or stocks). M.P.: Janssen-Cilag (honoraria), AbbVie, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eisai Europe, MSD Oncology, Novartis, Pfizer/EMD Serono, Roche, Takeda, Merck Serono (consulting or advisory role), Takeda (expert testimony), Vifor Pharma, Bristol Myers Squibb, Boehringer Ingelheim, AstraZeneca (travel, accommodation, expenses). M.F.: BMS, AstraZeneca, MSD, Takeda, Roche, Lilly (consulting or advisory role), Pfizer (speakers’ bureau), BMS, AstraZeneca (research funding) LAM: Takeda, Roche, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Pfizer (consulting or advisory role), Takeda, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck, Roche, AstraZeneca (travel, accommodation, expenses). C.B.: AstraZeneca, Pfizer, Roche, Takeda, Janssen-Cilag, Boehringer Ingelheim (consulting or advisory role), AstraZeneca, Takeda (travel, accommodation, expenses). S.P.: Roche, Bristol Myers Squibb, Novartis, Pfizer, MSD, AstraZeneca, Takeda, Illumina, Medscape (honoraria), Roche/Genentech, Novartis, Bristol Myers Squibb, Pfizer, MSD, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Janssen, Regeneron, Merck Serono, Boehringer Ingelheim, Takeda, Lilly, AbbVie, Bayer, Biocartis, Debiopharm Group, Illumina, PharmaMar, Sanofi, Seattle Genetics, Blueprint Medicines, Daiichi Sankyo, Incyte, Bioinvent, Clovis Oncology, Vaccibody, Phosplatin Therapeutics (consulting or advisory role), Roche, BMS, MSD, Amgen, Lilly, AstraZeneca, Pfizer, Illumina, Merck Serono, Novartis, Biodesix, Boehringer Ingelheim, Iovance Biotherapeutics, Phosplatin Therapeutics (research funding), Roche, Bristol Myers Squibb, MSD, Sanofi, Incyte (travel, accommodation, expenses). MiMa: Roche, AstraZeneca, Takeda, BMS, MSD Oncology (consulting or advisory role), Pfizer, Roche, Takeda (travel, accommodation, expenses). A.F.O.: Tolremo (consulting or advisory role), argenx (research funding) W.D.J.: Roche, Takeda, MSD, Novartis (consulting or advisory role). N.M.: MaxVAX SA (stock or equity, research funding). P.F.: Pfizer, Takeda, Roche, Boehringer Ingelheim, AstraZeneca, Novartis, Bayer (consulting or advisory role). P.B.: MSD, Bayer (consulting or advisory role), Janssen (travel, accommodation, expenses). S.R.: Bristol Myers Squibb, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Eisai, Roche, Novartis, Merck Serono, MSD Oncology, Pfizer, Takeda, AbbVie (consulting or advisory role), Boehringer Ingelheim, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eisai, Merck Serono, AbbVie (research funding), Roche, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb (expert testimony), Roche Pharma AG, Lilly, Bristol Myers Squibb, AstraZeneca, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Amgen (travel, accommodation, expenses). V.H.K.: Sharing Progress in Cancer Care, Indica Labs (invited speaker), Takeda (consulting or advisory role), Roche, IAG (research funding), patent applications on the assessment of cancer immunotherapy biomarkers by digital pathology and for the prediction of cancer recurrence risk and prediction of treatment efficacy using deep learning, unrelated to the current study. A.Z.: Roche, NBE Therapeutics, Engimmune (consulting or advisory role), Roche, Bright Peak Therapeutics, T3 Pharma (research funding).