Feng, Guangxia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1448-8815
Liu, Zaichun
Holoubek, John https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0015-4512
Greenburg, Louisa C. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0545-0081
Zhang, Ge https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2631-8987
Li, Yuqi https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1501-1549
Guan, Xun https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0688-1246
Cui, Yi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6103-6352
Zhang, Pu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4186-699X
Brest, Adam https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2394-8640
Zheng, Xueli https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6800-2649
Funding for this research was provided by:
US Department of Energy - Aqueous Battery Consortium US Department of Energy - Basic Energy Sciences
Article History
Received: 21 October 2024
Accepted: 3 October 2025
First Online: 4 December 2025
Competing interests
: Y.C., X.Z. and G.F. are inventors of a pending US patent application no. 63/875,190, filed by Stanford University on 3 September 2025. The authors declare no other competing interests.