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Article History

Received: 22 September 2023

Accepted: 8 December 2025

First Online: 31 December 2025

Competing interests

: I.M.V., G.G.K., and A.E.L. are inventors on a pending patent application related to diagnostic assays for movement disorders. The patent applicant is the inventors (I.M.V., G.G.K., and A.E.L.) and the University Health Network. The application is titled Diagnostic assays for movement disorders and has the application number 18/537,455. The patent is currently pending. The application includes the SAA used in this study; however, in this manuscript, the assay is used solely as a research tool to classify brain tissue samples and not for diagnostic purposes. G.G.K. has a shared patent for 5G4 Synuclein antibody. All other authors declare no competing interests. Outside the submitted work, I.M.V. receives funding from the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research and consultancy fees from Ferrer. SLF receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia. M.I. is a paid consultant to BioArctic AB. M.C.T receives funding from NIH, Weston Brain Foundation, Tanenbaum Institute for Research in Science of Sport, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, and in-kind funding from Roche; she has served as an advisor to Eisai, Lilly and Novo Nordisk and she conducts clinical trials for Biogen, Anavex, Janssen, Novo Nordisk, BMS, Aribio, Green Valley, UCB, Passage Bio. S.H.F. receives research Funding from the Michael J Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research, NIH (Dystonia Coalition), Parkinson Canada, and the Weston Foundation. Honoraria from the International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society. Consultancy/Speaker fees from AbbVie, Lundbeck, Sunovion and Royalties from Oxford University Press. A.E.L. has served as an advisor for AbbVie, Amylyx, Aprinoia, Biogen, BioAdvance, Biohaven, BioVie, BlueRock, BMS, Denali, EG427, Ferrer, Janssen, Lilly, Northera, Pharma 2B, Sun Pharma, UCB; and Ventyx Bio; received honoraria from Sun Pharma and AbbVie; received grants from Brain Canada, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Edmond J Safra Philanthropic Foundation, Krembil Brain Institute, Michael J. Fox Foundation, Parkinson Foundation, Parkinson Canada, Weston Foundation; is serving as an expert witness in litigation related to paraquat and Parkinson’s disease, received publishing royalties from Elsevier, Saunders, Wiley-Blackwell, Johns Hopkins Press, and Cambridge University Press. G.G.K. reports personal fees from Parexel, other funding from Rossy Family Foundation, from Edmond Safra Foundation, grants from Krembil Foundation, MSA Coalition, Michael J. Fox Foundation, Parkinson Canada, NIH, Canada Foundation for Innovation, and Ontario Research Fund; in addition, G.G.K. received royalties from Wiley, Cambridge, and Elsevier publishers. None of these had an influence on this study. S.L.; E.S.; J.F-I.; S.L.; J.L.; H.T.; B.C.; N.G.R; S.H.Q.; A.M.K.; A.K.; K.S.; E.R.; N.P.V. and T.A. declare no competing interests.