Ge, Qi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0489-350X
Ren, Menghui https://orcid.org/0009-0007-2404-4613
Qi, Tingting https://orcid.org/0009-0009-6834-4436
Han, Changcai https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4879-1748
Yuan, Yingjin https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0553-0089
Chen, Weigang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4880-8186
Funding for this research was provided by:
Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China (2023YFA0913800)
Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China (2021YFF1200200)
Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China (2024YFF1500500)
Article History
Received: 4 June 2025
Accepted: 16 January 2026
First Online: 31 January 2026
Competing interests
: Q.G., C.H., and W.C. have been granted a Chinese patent related to the encoding and decoding approach for composite letter DNA data storage (patent number CN119649874B). The remaining authors declare no competing interests.