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Article History

Received: 25 July 2025

Accepted: 8 April 2026

First Online: 8 May 2026

Competing interests

: P.S. reports consulting/advisory fees from Achelois, Affini-T Therapeutics, Apricity, Asher Biotherapeutics, BioAlta, Candel Therapeutics, Carisma Therapeutics, Catalio, Codiak BioSciences, C-Reveal Therapeutics, Dragonfly Therapeutics, Earli, Enable Medicine, Glympse, Henlius, Hummingbird, ImaginAb, Infinity Pharmaceuticals, InterVenn Biosciences, Lava Therapeutics, Lytix Biopharma, Marker Therapeutics, Oncolytics, PBM Capital, Phenomic AI, Polaris, Trained Therapeutix, Two Bear Capital, and Xilis; stock options and other ownership interests in Achelois, Adaptive Biotechnologies, Affini-T Therapeutics, Apricity, BioAlta, BioNTX, Candel Therapeutics, Catalio, Codiak Biosciences, Dragonfly Therapeutics, Earli, Enable Medicine, Glympse, Hummingbird, ImaginAb, Infinity Pharmaceuticals, InterVenn Biosciences, JSL Health, Lava Therapeutics, Lytix Biopharma, Marker therapeutics, Oncolytics, PBM Capital, Phenomic AI, Polaris, Sporos, Time BioVentures, Trained Therapeutix, and Two Bear Capital; and patent license with Jounce. M.Kr. has no relationships to disclose. F.S. reports consulting/advisory fees from AAA/Novartis, Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Janssen Oncology, Merck, Myovant, Pfizer, Sanofi and Tolmar; research funding (institution) from AAA/Novartis, Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb (BMS), Janssen, Merck, Myovant, Pfizer, and Sanofi; and honoraria from AAA/Novartis, AbbVie, Amgen, Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Janssen Oncology, Merck, Myovant, Pfizer, and Sanofi. D.C. reports personal fees from Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, BMS, GSK, Ipsen, Janssen, MSD, Novartis, Pfizer, and Roche; and financial institutional relationships with Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BMS, Clovis, Eisai, Exelixis, GSK, Ipsen, Janssen, Lilly, MSD, Pfizer, QED Therapeutics, and Roche. J.B. reports consulting/advisory fees from BMS, Eisai, EUSA Pharma, Ipsen, Merck KGaA, MSD Oncology, Pfizer, and Roche; speakers’ bureau fees from BMS, Ipsen, Merck KGaA, MSD Oncology, and Pfizer; and research funding from Astellas Pharma, BMS, Exelixis, Ipsen, MSD Oncology, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche, and Seattle Genetics. M.Kw. reports personal fees from Janssen, Novartis, and Roche; and clinical trial participation with AstraZeneca, Bayer, BMS, Brigene, Hengrui, Janssen Cilag, MSD, Roche, and Shanghai Jinshu. A.P. reports consulting/advisory or personal fees from Boston Gene, Clovis, Exelixis, Gerson Lehrman Group, Guidepoint, Janssen, and PRIME; research funding from AstraZeneca, BMS, Clovis, Laekna, PRIME, Progenics, and Xencor; and other grants from the Department of Defense, National Cancer Institute, Phi Beta Psi Charity Trust Research Organization, and Prostate Cancer Foundation. G.P. reports consulting/advisory fees or personal fees from ACCORD Healthcare Italia srl, Amgen, Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BMS, Boehringer Ingelheim, Eisai, Eli Lilly, Ipsen, Janssen, Janssen-Cilag, Menarini Group, Merck, MSD, Orche, Pfizer, and Telix Pharmaceuticals Limited; and other institutional research grants from Gilead, Ipsen, Janssen, and MSD. P.W. reports consulting/advisory fees from Astellas Pharma, Bayer, BMS, Janssen-Cilag, Merck, and Pfizer; and personal fees from Astellas Pharma, Bayer, BMS, Janssen-Cilag, Merck, MSD, and Pfizer. S.K. has no relationships to disclose. C.T. reports consulting/advisory fees from Astellas Pharma, Bayer, BMS, Janssen, and Merck. J.Á.A.A. reports consulting/advisory fees from Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BMS, Eisai, Janssen-Cilag, Merck, MSD Oncology, Novartis, and Pfizer; personal fees from Astellas Pharma, BMS, and Pfizer; and research funding (institution) from BMS. S.L.M. reports speakers’ bureau fees from BMS; and research funding from BMS and Roche/Genentech. S.H. has no relationships to disclose. G.D. reports consulting/advisory fees from Astellas Pharma, Bayer, BMS, MSD Oncology, Pfizer, and Sanofi/Aventis; and personal fees from Astellas Pharma. J.I.D.M. has no relationships to disclose. C.K. has no relationships to disclose. S.K.S. reports personal fees from Baird Boxer Capital, Breaking Data, Intellisphere LLC, NoeticInsight, SurvivorNet, The Clinical Comms Group, and Third Bridge; nonfinancial support from AstraZeneca; personal fees and nonfinancial support from Arcus Biosciences, BMS, DAVA Oncology, Dendreon, HERVolution, Johnson & Johnson, Kahr Medical Ltd, Kiniksa Pharmaceuticals, Merck, Novartis, Pfizer, Portage, Regeneron, Rondo Therapeutics, and Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer; and personal fees and ownership interests from Apricity Health and Vicero. S.B. has no relationships to disclose. S.J. has no relationships to disclose. B.A.S. reports honoraria from Cancer Experts Now, Curio Science, Cardinal Health; consulting/advisory fees from Amgen, Bayer, Johnson & Johnson, Merck, and Pfizer; research funding (to institution) from Regeneron and Amgen; research funding (to individual) from ASCO-Conquer Cancer Foundation, Prostate Cancer Foundation, and Cancer Research Institute; and travel support from Merck, Curio Science, and Cardinal Health. A.L., S.G., and A.C. are employees of BMS; V.F., N.P.A., Y.W., and J.M.D. were employees of BMS at the time of the study and data analysis and interpretation. R.K.P. reports consulting/advisory fees from Astellas Pharma, Bayer, Blue Earth Diagnostics, BMS, Dendreon, EMD Serono, Exelixis, Genomic Health, Merck, Pfizer, and Sanofi; speakers’ bureau fees from Bayer, Dendreon, Merck, and Sanofi; personal fees from Genentech/Roche; research funding from BMS, Exelixis, and Pharmacyclics (institution) and Janssen Oncology (personal); IP licensing and licensing fees from Tempus; and IP licensing and ownership interest from Pixie Biosciences, Inc.