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Article History

Received: 16 September 2025

Accepted: 4 June 2026

First Online: 16 June 2026

Competing interests

: LN and HWM have submitted a patent application to the US Patent Office pertaining to the AFP-based AND-gate (US application 17/621,067; Inventors: Roas Keren, Nissim Lior, Weinstein-Marom Hadas, Gross Gideon; status of application: allowed). LN and HRM have submitted a patent application to the EU Patent Office pertaining to the AFP-based AND-gate (European application 20747152.5; Inventors: Roas Keren, Nissim Lior, Weinstein-Marom Hadas, Gross Gideon; status of application: awaiting examination). LN and KR have submitted patent applications to the US and EU Patent Offices pertaining to all other gates and circuit components (Patent applicants: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Inventors: Roas Keren and Nissim Lior; Application number: US provisional application 63/929,854; status of application: filed). LN is a co-founder of MeatoLogic, which has been granted the rights to use these patents. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.

: During the preparation of this work, the authors used Grammarly and ChatGPT. These AI tools were employed to improve spelling, grammar, and readability. Edits were made by submitting each sentence separately. Subsequently, the authors reviewed and edited each sentence as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the published article.