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Authors
Zhang, Bo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4381-1124
Fong, Youyi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4230-6863
Yu, Chenchen
Chen, Shiyu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2902-0403
Voillet, Valentin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5751-3881
Borate, Bhavesh
Schwedhelm, Katharine
Chen, Zhe https://orcid.org/0009-0000-7737-8915
Wang, Jing
Rouphael, Nadine G. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2512-7919
Branche, Angela R. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7742-5352
Diemert, David J. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2789-0512
Falsey, Ann R. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7141-9701
Graciaa, Daniel S. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9484-8488
Baden, Lindsey R. https://orcid.org/0009-0004-1752-1926
Frey, Sharon E.
Whitaker, Jennifer A.
Little, Susan J. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7645-9737
Kamidani, Satoshi
Walter, Emmanuel B.
Novak, Richard M.
Rupp, Richard https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9659-1217
Jackson, Lisa A.
Magaret, Craig A. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5056-2664
Carpp, Lindsay N. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0333-5925
Babu, Tara M. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7093-4077
Kottkamp, Angelica C. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4103-1666
Luetkemeyer, Anne F. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0911-1578
Immergluck, Lilly C.
Presti, Rachel M. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5469-0727
Bäcker, Martín https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8061-5838
Winokur, Patricia L.
Mahgoub, Siham M.
Goepfert, Paul A. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8441-5737
Fusco, Dahlene N. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5629-0110
Atmar, Robert L. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9989-6772
Posavad, Christine M.
Mu, Jinjian
Makowski, Mat
Makhene, Mamodikoe K.
Nayak, Seema U.
Roberts, Paul C. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4452-141X
Follmann, Dean https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4073-0393
De Rosa, Stephen C.
McElrath, M. Juliana https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2276-7117
Gilbert, Peter B. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2662-9427
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Article History
Received: 9 October 2025
Accepted: 25 September 2026
First Online: 6 October 2026
Ethics
Competing interests: V.V. was compensated for work on this manuscript through a consulting agreement with Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center. N.G.R. is a paid safety consultant for ICON, CyanVac, Imunon, and EMMES, and has served on selected advisory boards for Sanofi, Seqirus, Pfizer-BioNTech, and Moderna. Emory receives funds for N.G.R. to conduct research from Sanofi, Lilly, Merck, Quidel, Immorna, Vaccine Company, and Pfizer. A.R.B. received grants or contracts for research from Merck, Moderna, Pfizer, Cyanvac, and Vaccitech in the past 36 months and served as a consultant for GSK and Sanofi. In the past 36 months, she also received consulting fees from AstraZeneca, GSK, Moderna, Sanofi, and Novavax; and payment for a speaker role at learning lounges for IDWeek from Moderna and Sanofi. A.R.F. reports research grants to her institution from CyanVac, Moderna, Pfizer, AstraZeneca, and Sanofi; consulting fees from ADMA Biologics, GSK, Sanofi Pasteur, Merck, AstraZeneca, and Shionogi; and support for attending meetings and/or travel from GSK, Moderna, and Sanofi. S.E.F. reports having been a site principal investigator for the phase 3 Moderna and Janssen SARS-CoV-2 trials. J.A.W. reports funding from Pfizer to her institution and consulting or advisory fees from Cyanvac and EMMES for Data Safety Monitoring Committees. S.J.L. reports grants or contracts to her institution from Gilead and the NIH within the past 36 months. M.B. reports funding from Pfizer to his institution. P.L.W. reports funding to her institution from Leidos Biomed/NIH for the present manuscript; grants or contracts to her institution from Pfizer (vaccine clinical trials) and Duke University (subcontract for vaccine trials); and participation on Data Safety Monitoring Boards for Cyanvac and Emmes Corporation. S.K. reports research support to his institution from Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, Bavarian Nordic, Meissa, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and National Institutes of Health. E.B.W. has served as an investigator for clinical trials or studies sponsored by Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, Seqirus, Najit, and Clinetic; on advisory boards for Pfizer, Seqirus, and Vaxcyte; as a consultant to IliAD Biotechnologies; and as a DSMB member for Emmes and Shionogi. R.R. reports funding from Leidos Biomed/NIH for the present manuscript; grants or contracts from Merck, Pfizer, Moderna, Sanofi, GSK, and Vaxcyte for the conduct of vaccine clinical trials; and participation on Data Safety Monitoring Boards for Bharat Biotech and GSK. R.M.N. reports consultation or advisory fees and travel reimbursement from Moderna within the last 3 years. L.A.J. reports grant funding to her institution from the NIH and the CDC. L.N.C. was compensated for work on this manuscript through a consulting agreement with Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center. T.M.B. reports payments from Sanofi for a presentation and for participation on an advisory board. A.F.L. reports research funding from NIH and Gilead to her institution. L.C.I. reports funding grants from the NIH, Sanofi, and Pfizer; serving as a site PI for vaccine trials; and serving on the executive board of the American Academy of Pediatrics. She also reports service on the immunization task force and an honorarium for speaking engagements for the Illinois Chapter American Academy of Pediatrics. She also reports service as NIH (DMID) co-chair for protocol development on HIV vaccine trials and on the NIH (DMID)- Data Safety Monitoring Board for mpox vaccine trials. R.M.P. reports funding from Leidos Biomed/NIH for the present manuscript and grants or contracts from Merck, GSK, and Moderna (vaccine clinical trials). D.N.F. has served on an Advisory Board for Gilead Sciences and for AXCELLA, and as site PI for clinical trials sponsored by Gilead Sciences, Regeneron, MetroBiotech LLC, and the NIH (DMID COVAIL). The remaining authors declare no competing interests.
