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Article History

Received: 28 May 2025

Accepted: 14 December 2025

First Online: 24 December 2025

Competing interests

: G.G. reports fees for advisory role from Gilead, Seagen, Menarini, personal fees as an invited speaker from Eli Lilly, Novartis, MSD. M.B. reports travel support from Eli Lilly. F.M. reports personal fees from Roche, Novartis, Pfizer, Seagen, Menarini, MSD, Gilead, Astrazeneca. A.M. report consulting or advisory role from Eli Lilly, Eisai Europe, Daiichi Sankyo/Astra Zeneca, Novartis, research funding from Eli Lilly and Roche, travel/accommodations from Pfizer. S.S. reports the following: Novartis (speaker honoraria, advisory board, travel and expense Reimbursement for congress), Daiichi-Sankyo (speaker honoraria, tutorship, advisory board, travel and expense reimbursement for congress), Roche (travel and expense reimbursement for congress), Seagen, MSD and AstraZeneka (speaker honoraria and advisory board), Gentili and Mundipharma (speaker honoraria). T.G. reports personal fees from Novartis and Eli Lilly. F.P. reports, outside the submitted work, the following: consultancy/advisory board for Daichii Sankyo, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche; honoraria as a speaker from Novartis, Lilly, MSD, Pfizer. A.P. reports advisory and consulting fees from AstraZeneca, Roche, Pfizer, Novartis, Daiichi Sankyo, Ona Therapeutics, and Peptomyc, lecture fees from AstraZeneca, Roche, Novartis, and Daiichi Sankyo, institutional financial interests from AstraZeneca, Novartis, Roche, and Daiichi Sankyo; stockholder and employee of Reveal Genomics; patents filed PCT/EP2016/080056, PCT/EP2022/086493, PCT/EP2023/060810, EP23382703, and EP23383369. M.V.D. reports personal fees for consultancy/advisory role from: Eli Lilly, Pfizer, Novartis, Seagen, Gilead, MSD, Exact Sciences, AstraZeneca, Roche, Daiichi Sankyo, Roche. V.G. reports personal fees for advisory board participation for AstraZeneca, Daiichi Sankyo, Eli Lilly, Gilead, MSD, Novartis, Pfizer, Pierre Fabre, Roche, Menarini Stemline, Exact Sciences, personal fees as an invited speaker for AstraZeneca, Daiichi Sankyo, Eli Lilly, Exact Sciences, Gilead, GSK, Novartis, Roche, Zentiva, Menarini Stemline, personal fees for expert testimony for Eli Lilly, patents for HER2DX (Institution). All remaining authors have declared no conflicts of interest.