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Article History

Received: 11 December 2024

Accepted: 19 April 2025

First Online: 5 May 2025

Competing interests

: M.G., N.V.M., S.O., T.B., E.S., Y.T., C.H., and P.L. declare no conflict of interest. M.A.P is a consultant for Boston Scientific, Insightec, Medtronic, and Abbott. She has received reimbursement of travel expenses to attend scientific meetings by Palex, Boston Scientific, and Medtronic. She has received speaker honoraria from Palex. G.D. has served as a consultant for Boston Scientific and Cavion and as a DSMB member for Functional Neuromodulation. He has received royalties from Thieme Publishers and funding from the German Research Council (SFB 1261, T1). A.F. has received payments as a consultant and/or speaker from Abbott, Boston Scientific, Ceregate, Inbrain Neuroelectronics, Medtronic, and Iota, and has received research support from Boston Scientific, Medtronic. R.M.F. has received speaker honoraria from the Spanish Neurological Society research foundation, Insightec, Palex, Bial, and Zambon; has a consulting agreement with Treefrog Therapeutics; has received reimbursement of travel expenses to attend scientific meetings by Palex, Zambon, the International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society, the IAPDRD, and the World Parkinson’s Congress; and has received research funding from Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain for health research projects (PI21 Proyectos de Investigacion en Salud, AES 2021). C.G.S. has received lecture honoraria from Exeltis, Zambon, Palex, Insightec, Fundación ACE, Società Italiana Parkinson e Disordini del Movimento, and Asociación Madrileña de Neurología, and reimbursement of travel expenses to attend scientific conferences from Boston Scientific and Esteve. J.K.K. is a consultant to Medtronic, Boston Scientific, aleva, and Inomed. A.A.K. is a consultant to Medtronic, Boston Scientific, and Teva. S.L. is a consultant for Iota Biosciences and has previously received honorarium from Medtronic. S.L.’s research is supported by NINDS NIH grants R01NS131405, K23NS120037, and Wellcome Discovery Award 226645/Z/22/Z. A.M.L. is a consultant to Abbott, Boston Scientific, Insightec, Medtronic, and Functional Neuromodulation (Scientific Director). M.S.O. serves as Medical Advisor in the Parkinson’s Foundation, and has received research grants from NIH, Parkinson’s Foundation, the Michael J. Fox Foundation, the Parkinson Alliance, Smallwood Foundation, the Bachmann-Strauss Foundation, the Tourette Syndrome Association, and the UF Foundation. M.S.O.’s research is supported by: R01 NS131342, NIH R01 NR014852, R01NS096008, UH3NS119844, U01NS119562. M.S.O. is PI of the NIH R25NS108939 Training Grant. M.S.O. has received royalties for publications with Hachette Book Group, Demos, Manson, Amazon, Smashwords, Books4Patients, Perseus, Robert Rose, Oxford, and Cambridge (movement disorders books). M.S.O. is an associate editor for the New England Journal of Medicine, Journal Watch Neurology, and JAMA Neurology. M.S.O. has participated in CME and educational activities (past 12–24 months) on movement disorders sponsored by WebMD/Medscape, RMEI Medical Education, American Academy of Neurology, Movement Disorders Society, Mediflix, and by Vanderbilt University. The institution and not M.S.O. receives grants from industry. M.S.O. has participated as a site PI and/or co-I for several NIH, foundation, and industry-sponsored trials over the years but has not received honoraria. Research projects at the University of Florida receive device and drug donations. J.L.O. received consulting payments from Abbott, Acorda, Jazz, Adamas, AcureX, and Aspen as well as research or training grants from Biogen, Boston Scientific, Medtronic, Neuroderm, Runelabs, AbbVie, Merz, Amneal, and Acadia. A.S. received consulting fees from Abbott, Zambon, and AbbVie, and speaker honoraria from bsh Medical communication, Abbott, Kyowa Kirin, Novartis, AbbVie, Alexion, and GE Healthcare. The institution of AS, not AS personally, received funding by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, the Brunhilde Moll Foundation, and Abbott. P.A.S. is compensated for time spent on the data safety and monitoring board for Neuralink, Inc. L.T. received occasional payments as a consultant for Boston Scientific, L.T. received honoraria as a speaker on symposia sponsored by Boston Scientific, AbbVIE, Novartis, Neuraxpharm, Teva, the Movement Disorders Society, and DIAPLAN. The institution of L.T., not L.T. personally, received funding from Boston Scientific, the German Research Foundation, the German Ministry of Education and Research, the Otto-Loewi-Foundation, and the Deutsche Parkinson Vereinigung. Neither L.T. nor any member of his family holds stocks, stock options, patents, or financial interests in any of the above-mentioned companies or their competitors. L.T. serves as the president of the German Neurological Society without any payment or any income. G.T. received financial support from Boston Scientific and Medtronic; research agreement with RuneLabs and Medtronic not related to the present work. V.V.V. received occasional payments as a consultant or speaker on symposia from Boston Scientific and Medtronic. J.V. reports grants and personal fees from Medtronic, grants and personal fees from Boston Scientific, and personal fees from Abbott outside the submitted work. J.V. was supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG, Project-ID424778381, TRR 295)—J.V. received consulting and lecture fees from Boston Scientific, Medtronic, and Newronika. Research grants from the German Research Foundation, the German Ministry of Research and Education, Boston Scientific, and Medtronic. Lecture Honoraria from UCB, Zambon, and Abbott. A.P. and S.M. are founders and shareholders of Newronika Spa, Italy.