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Article History

Received: 2 July 2024

Accepted: 24 April 2025

First Online: 13 June 2025

Competing interests

: There are no conflicts of interest among the authors associated with the manuscript. K.B. received Research Grants from the Michael J Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research (“LRRK2 Kinase Activity”,“Influence of Inflammatory Profiles on PD Phenotype and Progression”, “Prevent Dementia in GBA1-associated PD”), from the University of Tuebingen (“Endophenotyping of GBA1-PD”), from the German Society for Parkinson DPG, from the Health Forum Baden Wuerttemberg (“Predictive Diagnostic of immune-associated diseases for personalised medicine”, AZ 35-4223.10/8), from the Else Kröner Fresenius Stiftung (“ClinBrain”), and from the German Research Foundation DFG (“CORO-TREND”). She serves on advisory boards for F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd and VanqaBio. She received speaker honoraria from Abbvie, Lundbeck, UCB and Zambon. C.D. has nothing to disclose. T.G. serves on the editorial board of the Journal of PD. He holds a patent re: KASPP (LRRK2) gene, its production and use for the detection and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Prof. Gasser has received speaker’s honoraria from UCB Pharma, Novartis, Sanofi and MedUpdate. He has received consulting fees from Bayer AG, BlueRock Therapeutics and Biogen. He is Chairman of the Scientific Advisory Board of the “Joint Programming for Neurodegenerative Diseases” program, funded by the European Commission. He has received grant support from the German Research Foundation (DFG), the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), the Ministry for Science, Research and Art Baden-Württemberg (MWK), the European Commission, the Helmholtz Association and The Michael J. Fox Foundation. M.F. has nothing to disclose. M.J. has nothing to disclose. T.J. has nothing to disclose. S.L. has nothing to disclose. B.R. has received a research grant from the University of Tuebingen (Clinician Scientist; Project-Nr. 480-0-0). N.S.M. has received funding from the State Ministry of Baden-Württemberg for Economic Affairs, Labour and Tourism (“Predictive Diagnostic of immune-associated diseases for personalised medicine”, AZ 35-4223.10/8). C.S. has nothing to disclose. I.W. receives funding from The Michael J. Fox Foundation (MJFF) as an Edmond J. Safra Fellow in Movement Disorders. M.Z. has received a research grant from the University of Tuebingen (Clinician Scientist; Project-Nr. 481-0-0). S.Z. has nothing to disclose.

: All participants gave written informed consent. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Tuebingen (Project-Nr. 458/2023BO2). All procedures were in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (1975).