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Article History

Received: 20 January 2026

Accepted: 13 May 2026

First Online: 28 May 2026

Competing interests

: C.Q. is currently working at Novo Nordisk, but the study was designed during her postdoctoral research at Karolinska Institutet. Novo Nordisk did not influence the submitted work. A.B.S. reports grants from Department of Defense, during the conduct of the study; grants from Michael J Fox Foundation, outside the submitted work. A.B.S. is an unpaid Scientific Advisory Board member for Cajal Neuroscience outside of the submitted work. A.B.S. is part of the Editorial board of Neurogenetics. A.B.S. was not involved in the journal’s review of, or decisions related to, this manuscript.W.P. reports personal fees from Grünenthal, personal fees from AbbVie, personal fees from AOP Health Orphan, personal fees from Zambon, personal fees and other from Boehringer Ingelheim, personal fees from Stada, personal fees from Bial UCB Pharma, outside the submitted work. A.E.L. reports personal fees from AbbVie, personal fees from AFFiRis, personal fees from Janssen, personal fees from Biogen, personal fees from Merck, personal fees from Sun Pharma, personal fees from Corticobasal Solutions, personal fees from Sunovion, personal fees from Paladin, personal fees from Lilly, personal fees from Medtronic, personal fees from Theravance, personal fees from Lundbeck, personal fees from Retrophin, personal fees from Roche, personal fees from PhotoPharmics, outside the submitted work. P. T. was supported by the Grants PRG2736 and TEM-TA110 of the Estonian Research Council. A.B. reports grants from France Parkinson + FRC, grants from ANR - EPIG - Agence nationale de recherche, grants from ANR - JPND - Agence nationale de recherche, grants from RDS (Roger de Spoelberch Foundation), grants from France Alzheimer, grants from Institut de France, grants from ANR - EPIG, grants from FMR (maladies rares), outside the submitted work. A.B. is part of the editorial advisory board of Brain, as well as the Editorial board of Neurogenetics. A.B. was not involved in the journal’s review of, or decisions related to, this manuscript. J.C.C. reports grants from the Michael J Fox Foundation, Sanofi, and served in advisory boards for Air Liquide, Biogen, Denali, Ever Pharma, Idorsia, Prevail Therapeutic, Theranexus, UCB, outside the submitted work. K.B. has received research funding from the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research (MJFF-022343, MJFF-023275, MJFF-023365), the German Society for Parkinson DPG, the Health Forum Baden Wuerttemberg, the Else Kröner Fresenius Stiftung (ClinbrAIn), the University of Tuebingen, and from the German Research Foundation DFG (BR-655671-1. K.B. is a consultant for F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Vanqua Bio, and the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research and has received speaker honoraria from Abbvie, Lundbeck, UCB and Zambon.’ L.S. reports the following grants: PPMI2 (supported by the Michael J. Fox Foundation), IMPRIND-IMI2 Number 116060 (EU, H2020), “Transferring autonomous and non-autonomous cell degeneration 3D models between EU and USA for development of effective therapies for neurodegenerative diseases (ND) - CROSS NEUROD” (H2020-EU 1.3.3., Grant Number778003), «Chaperone-Mediated Autophagy in Neurodegeneration» (Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation Grant HFRI-FM17-3013), and “CMA as a Means to Counteract alpha-Synuclein Pathology in Non-Human Primates” Grant by the Michael J. Fox Foundation (Collaborator). L.S. is co-Head and PI at the NKUA of the General Secretariat of Research and Technology (GSRT)-funded Grant “National Network of Precision Medicine for Neurodegenerative Diseases”. L.S. has served on an Advisory Board for Abbvie, ITF Hellas and Biogen and has received honoraria from Abbvie and Sanofi. There are no specific disclosures related to the current work. E.M.V. serves as Associate Editor of Journal of Medical Genetics, Section Editor of Pediatric Research, Member of the Editorial Board of Movement Disorders Clinical Practice; grants from the Italian Ministry of Health, CARIPLO Foundation, Pierfranco and Luisa Mariani Foundation, Telethon Foundation Italy, outside the submitted work. E.M.V. was not involved in the journal’s review of, or decisions related to, this manuscript. N.H. reports grants from - Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development (AMED), grants from - Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), grants from - Ministry of Education Culture,Sports,Science and Technology Japan; Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas, personal fees and other from Dai-Nippon Sumitomo Pharma Co.,Ltd, personal fees and other from Takeda Pharmaceutical Co.,Ltd., personal fees and other from Kyowa Kirin Co.,Ltd., personal fees and other from GSK K.K, personal fees and other from Nippon Boehringer Ingelheim,Co.,Ltd, personal fees and other from FP Pharmaceutical Corporation, personal fees and other from Eisai Co.,Ltd., personal fees and other from Kissei Pharmaceutical Company, personal fees and other from Nihon Medi-physics Co.,Ltd, personal fees and other from Novartis Pharma K.K, personal fees and other from Biogen Idec Japan Ltd, personal fees and other from AbbVie, from Medtronic, Inc., other from Boston Scientific Japan, personal fees and other from Astellas Pharma Inc., grants and other from Ono Pharmaceutical Co.,Ltd, other from Nihon Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, other from Asahi Kasei Medical Co.,Ltd, other from Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma Corporation, personal fees and other from Daiichi Sankyo Co., other from OHARA Pharmaceutical Co.,Ltd, other from Meiji Seika Pharma, personal fees from Sanofi K.K., personal fees from Pfizer Japan Inc., personal fees from Alexion Pharmaceuticals, personal fees from Mylan N.V, personal fees from MSD K.K, personal fees from Lund Beck Japan, other from Hisamitsu Pharmaceutical Co.,Inc, outside the submitted work. K.N. reports grants from - Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), outside the submitted work. P.K. reports other from Centre Hospitalier de Luxembourg; University of Luxembourg, grants from Fonds National de Recherche (FNR), from null, outside the submitted work. B.P.C.v.d.W. reports grants from ZonMw, Hersenstichting, Gossweiler Fund, Radboud university medical centre, and Christina Foundation outside the submitted work. B.P.C.v.d.W. has done paid consultancy for Biohaven Pharmaceuticals, Vico Therapeutics, and Servier, and receives roylaties from BSL/Springer-Nature. B.R.B. reports grants from Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development, grants from Michael J. Fox Foundation, grants from Parkinson Vereniging, grants from Parkinson Foundation, grants from Gatsby Foundation, grants from Verily Life Sciences, grants from Horizon 2020, grants from Topsector Life sciences and Health, grants from Stichting Parkinson Fonds, grants from UCB, grants from Abbvie, during the conduct of the study; personal fees from Biogen, personal fees from Abbvie, personal fees from Walk with Path, personal fees from UCB, personal fees from Abbvie, personal fees from Zambon, personal fees from Bial, personal fees from Roche, outside the submitted work; and Serves as editor-in-chief of the Journal of Parkinson’s Disease and serves on the editorial board of Practical Neurology and Digital Biomarkers. B.R.B. was not involved in the journal’s review of, or decisions related to, this manuscript. M.T. reports grants from Research Council of Norway, during the conduct of the study; grants from South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority, grants from Michael J. Fox Foundation, outside the submitted work. L.P. reports grants from Norwegian Health Association, grants from South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority, outside the submitted work. J.J.F. reports grants from GlaxoSmithKline, grants from Grunenthal, grants from Fundação MSD (Portugal), grants from TEVA, grants from MSD, grants from Allergan, grants from Novartis, grants from Medtronic, grants from GlaxoSmithKline, grants from Novartis, grants from TEVA, grants from Lundbeck, grants from Solvay, grants from BIAL, grants from Merck-Serono, grants from Merz, grants from Ipsen, grants from Biogen, grants from Acadia, grants from Allergan, grants from Abbvie, grants from Sunovion Pharmaceuticals, personal fees from Faculdade de Medicina de Lisboa, personal fees from CNS - Campus Neurológico Sénior, personal fees from BIAL, personal fees from Novartis, outside the submitted work. S.B. is supported by the National Research Foundation of South Africa (Grant 129249) and the South African Medical Research Council (Self-Initiated Research Grant). E.T. received honoraria for consultancy from TEVA, Bial, Prevail Therapeutics, Boehringer Ingelheim, Roche and BIOGEN and has received funding for research from Spanish Network for Research on Neurodegenerative Disorders (CIBERNED)- Instituto Carlos III (ISCIII), and The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research(MJFF). A.P. reports grants from Parkinsonfonden (The Swedish Parkinson Foundation), grants from ALF (Swedish Government), grants from Region Skåne, Sweden, grants from Skåne University Hospital, grants from Hans-Gabriel och Trolle Wachtmeister Stiftelse för Medicinsk Forskning, Sweden, grants from Multipark – a strategic research environment at Lund University, during the conduct of the study; personal fees from Elsevier, outside the submitted work.M.T. reports grants from Parkinson’s UK, other from Michael J Fox Foundation, other from University College London, outside the submitted work. D.K. is Associate Editor of The Journal of Clinical Investigation. D.K. was not involved in the journal’s review of, or decisions related to, this manuscript. D.K. is also a Venture Partner at OrbiMed, founder and SAB chair at Vanqua BIO, founder of LTI, outside the submitted work. R.K. reports grants from Fonds National de Recherche (FNR), grants from German Research Council (DFG), non-financial support from Abbvie, Zambon, during the conduct of the study; personal fees from University of Luxembourg; Luxembourg Institute of Health; Centre Hospitalier de Luxembourg, grants from Fonds National de Recherche, Luxembourg (FNR), grants from Fonds National de Recherche, Luxembourg (FNR), grants from Fonds National de Recherche (FNR), Luxembourg/German Research Council (DFG), grants from Fonds National de Recherche, Luxembourg (FNR), personal fees from Desitin/Zambon, personal fees from Abbvie GmbH, personal fees from Medtronic GmbH, outside the submitted work. T.G. reports personal fees from UCB Pharma, personal fees from Novartis, personal fees from Teva, personal fees from MedUpdate, grants from The Michael J Fox Foundation for Parkinson´s Research, grants from Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF), grants from Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), other from “Joint Programming for Neurodegenerative Diseases"(JPND) program, funded by the European Commission, outside the submitted work; In addition, T.G. has a patent. Patent Number: EP1802749 (A2) KASPP (LRRK2) gene, its production and use for the detection and treatment of neurodegenerative disorders issued. T.G. is on the Editorial board of Neurogenetics. T.G.r was not involved in the journal’s review of, or decisions related to, this manuscript. A.E. reports grants from Agence nationale de recherche (ANR), Michael J Fox foundation, Plan Ecophyto (French ministry of agriculture), and France Parkinson, outside the submitted work. M.S. reports grants from German Research Council (DFG) (SH 599/16-1), Michael J Foundation (MJFF), and GP2. N.L.P. reports grants from Swedish Research Council, during the conduct of the study. K.W. reports grants from Swedish Research Council, during the conduct of the study. K.W. was supported by Region Stockholm (clinical research appointment).The other authors declare no competing interests.