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Article History

Received: 6 May 2025

Accepted: 9 September 2025

First Online: 3 November 2025

Change Date: 24 November 2025

Change Type: Update

Change Details: In this article the word count was published at the end of the abstract which needs to be removed. The original article has been corrected.

Competing interests

: T.P. has no financial or other conflicts of interests. M.C. has a financial interest in and is Co-founder and Chief Scientific Officer of Moleculera Biosciences, a CLIA and COLA certified laboratory in Oklahoma City, OK, at the University of Oklahoma Research Park where the company offers diagnostic testing of blood samples for anti-neuronal Abs in postinfectious neuropsychiatric sequelae and movement disorders. Moleculera Biosciences owns the license for an autoimmune heart autoantibody panel for future diagnostic testing in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases of the heart. A.S. has received consulting payments, honoraria and travel funds from the Leducq Foundation, ASAVI, SAVAC and the NZ GAS vaccine programme (Rapua te mea ngaro ka tau) for advice on GAS vaccine development. A.S. was the director of the GSK Vaccines Institute for Global Health (GVGH), Siena from 2015 to November 2019. GVGH is developing a GAS vaccine containing a GAC conjugate. However, A.S. has no shares or other financial interest in GVGH, GSK or any other pharmaceutical company. A.S. is an inventor on two families of patents derived from WO2013038375A2 (family contains awarded patents) and WO2022101434A1 (all pending) describing methods for conjugation of polysaccharides to carriers, which may be relevant to production of a GAC conjugate vaccine the assignee of all these patents is GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals SA, GSK Vaccines Institute for Global Health S.R.L. or GSK Vaccines S.R.L. A.S. has no financial interest in these patents.