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Article History

Received: 9 November 2024

Accepted: 11 February 2026

First Online: 9 March 2026

Competing interests

: A.C. is a co-founder and holds equity in Tmunity Therapeutics (acquired by Kite), and serves as an advisor for BlueWhale Bio. M.R. is an inventor on multiple patents related to T cell immunotherapy for cancer and autoimmune diseases, which are managed by the University of Pennsylvania and licensed or optioned to Vittoria Biotherapeutics and Tmunity (Kite). M.R. serves as a consultant for Guidepoint, Athenaeum, Mosaic, and GLG, and is a member of the advisory boards of Lumicks, Acera, AbClon, Biocartis, and Vittoria Biotherapeutics. In the past 12 months, M.R. has also served as a consultant for AbbVie, ModeX, and Aleta. E.A.S. serves as a consultant for Janssen and BMS, and receives grant funding from Sorrento and AbbVie. N.V.F., D.L.P. and F.D.B. are affiliated with Sana Biotechnology. N.V.F. also holds consultancy roles with Novartis and Syndax Pharmaceuticals and receives funding from Kite Pharma. E.O.H. has consulting or advisory roles with Blueprint Medicines, Cabaletta Bio and the American Board of Internal Medicine Subspecialty Board and receives research funding from Kite and DISC Medicines. D.L.P. serves on advisory boards for the National Marrow Donor Program, and has or had consulting roles with Novartis, BMS, Kite/Gilead, Poseida, Sana Biotechnology, and Mirror Biologics, holds equity in Genentech, and receives honoraria from the American Society for Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, and Wiley and Sons Publishing. He received research support from Novartis and BMS and has patents and royalties with Novartis, Tmunity. A.D.C. consults for Janssen, GSK, BMS/Celgene, Genentech/Roche, Pfizer, Abbvie, Arcellx, Regeneron, Astrazeneca, Kite, Legend, Prothena, Caribou, Novartis, Moderna, and Ichnos, receives research funding from Genentech/Roche, GSK, and Janssen, and holds patents related to CAR T-cell therapy with Novartis. S.I.G. has stock ownership in Carisma Therapeutics and Interius Biotherapeutics, serves in an advisory role with Asher Bio, and receives research funding from Carisma Therapeutics and Novartis. He also holds patents for CAR T cells targeting acute myeloid leukaemia and for in vivo CAR T cells. A.L.G. consults for BMS, Janssen, Novartis, GSK, Abbvie, Regeneron, Gracell Bio, and Legend, and receives research funding from Novartis, Janssen, Tmunity, and CRISPR therapeutics. He holds patents related to CAR T-cell therapy with Novartis. S.J.S. serves as a consultant for Acerta, Celgene, Genentech, Novartis, and Pharmacyclics, and receives research funding from Celgene, Gilead, Janssen, Merck, Novartis, and Pharmacyclics. He is also a member of scientific advisory committees for Nordic Nanovector and Caribou Biosciences, and holds patents for methods related to treating PML and for combination therapies of CAR and PD-1 inhibitors. B.L.L. serves or recently served as a consultant or advisory board member for Terumo, GSK, Kite, Avectas, Capstan (Chair), Immuneel, Immusoft, In8bio, Ori Biotech, Oxford Biomedica, ThermoFisher Pharma Services, and UTC Therapeutics. He is a co-founder and equity holder in Tmunity Therapeutics (now acquired by Kite) and Capstan Therapeutics (now acquired by Abbvie), and serves on the board of the Alliance for Cancer Gene Therapy. D.L.S. holds founder’s equity and licensed IP in Verismo Therapeutics, Vetigenics, and Chimeric Therapeutics. C.L.M. is a co-founder and equity holder in Link Cell Therapies, CARGO Therapeutics, and GBM NewCo. She also receives research funding from Lyell and Tune and serves as a consultant for CARGO, Link, GBMNewCo, Immatics, and Ensoma. Z.G. is an inventor on two patent applications, holds equity in Boom Capital Ventures, and consults for Mubadala Ventures. E.J.W. is a member of the Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy and serves as an advisor for several companies, including Absci, Arpelos Bioscience, Arsenal Biosciences, Coherus, Danger Bio, IpiNovyx, New Limit, Marengo, Pluto Immunotherapeutics, Prox Biosciences, Related Sciences, Santa Ana Bio, and Synthekine. He is a founder of Arpelos Bioscience, Danger Bio, and Arsenal Biosciences, and holds stock in Coherus. C.H.J. receives royalties from Novartis and Kite, paid to the University of Pennsylvania. He is a scientific co-founder and equity holder in Capstan Therapeutics, Dispatch Biotherapeutics, and Bluewhale Bio, and serves on the board of AC Immune. He holds advisory roles with several companies, including BluesphereBio, Cabaletta, Carisma, Cartography, Cellares, Cellcarta, Celldex, Danaher, Decheng, ImmuneSensor, Kite, Poseida, Verismo, Viracta, and the WIRB-Copernicus Group. F.D.B. is a scientific co-founder of Biocept, has intellectual property licensed to Novartis, and is a consultant for SANA, Poseida, Encoded, and Johnson and Johnson. J.A.F. holds patents and intellectual property related to T-cell-based cancer immunotherapy, with royalties, and receives funding from Tmunity Therapeutics and Danaher Corporation. He also consults for Retro Biosciences and serves on the scientific advisory boards of Cartography Bio, Shennon Biotechnologies, CellFe Biotech, OverT Bio, and Tceleron Therapeutics. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.