Chang, Ping https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9085-0759
Fu, Dan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6423-6117
Liu, Xue
Castruccio, Frederic S. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8397-7452
Prein, Andreas F.
Danabasoglu, Gokhan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4676-2732
Wang, Xiaoqi
Bacmeister, Julio
Zhang, Qiuying
Rosenbloom, Nan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7389-3346
King, Teagan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8031-8606
Bates, Susan C.
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Science Foundation (AGS-2231237)
National Science Foundation (AGS-2332469)
National Science Foundation (AGS-2231237)
National Science Foundation (AGS-2231237)
National Science Foundation (AGS-2332469)
National Science Foundation (1852977)
National Science Foundation (1852977)
National Science Foundation (1852977)
National Science Foundation (1852977)
National Science Foundation (1852977)
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine | National Academy of Sciences (2000013283)
United States Department of Commerce | NOAA | Climate Program Office (NA24OARX431G0047)
United States Department of Commerce | NOAA | Climate Program Office (NA24OARX431G0047)
Norges Forskningsråd (301777)
Article History
Received: 14 April 2025
Accepted: 20 October 2025
First Online: 18 November 2025
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.