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Authors
Allcott, Hunt
Gentzkow, Matthew https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7758-8656
Levy, Ro’ee https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7351-8554
Crespo-Tenorio, Adriana
Dumas, Natasha
Mason, Winter
Moehler, Devra https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3631-8630
Barberá, Pablo
Brown, Taylor
Cisneros, Juan Carlos https://orcid.org/0009-0006-4355-9711
Dimmery, Drew https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9602-6325
Freelon, Deen
González-Bailón, Sandra https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8372-798X
Guess, Andrew M. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2974-7848
Kim, Young Mie
Lazer, David https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7991-9110
Malhotra, Neil https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4477-6049
Nair-Desai, Sameer https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6780-2591
Nyhan, Brendan
Paixao de Queiroz, Ana Carolina
Pan, Jennifer https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4818-0122
Settle, Jaime
Thorson, Emily
Tromble, Rebekah https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3875-2729
Velasco Rivera, Carlos
Wittenbrink, Benjamin
Wojcieszak, Magdalena https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5456-4483
Yang, Shiqi
Zahedian, Saam
Franco, Annie
Kiewiet de Jonge, Chad
Stroud, Natalie Jomini https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3528-9986
Tucker, Joshua A. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1321-8650
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Stanford University
Alfred P. Sloan Foundation
Stanford Institute for Economic and Policy Research
John S. and James L. Knight Foundation
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation
European Research Starting Grant
University of Texas at Austin
William and Flora Hewlett Foundation
Charles G. Koch Charitable Foundation
New York University
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Article History
Received: 15 March 2024
Accepted: 24 September 2025
First Online: 2 March 2026
Competing interests
: The costs associated with the research (such as participant fees, recruitment and data collection) were paid by Meta and some authors are employed by Meta. To ensure transparency and integrity in the research process, we adopted the following conventions. First, none of the academic researchers nor their institutions received financial or any other compensation from Meta for their participation in the project. Second, all of the papers resulting from the US 2020 Facebook and Instagram Election Study, including this one, were preregistered at the Open Science Foundation. Third, for every paper, a set of core authors with control rights over the final content of the paper were specified. The core authors with control rights for this paper are H.A., M.G. and R.L. Fourth, Meta publicly agreed that there would be no prepublication approval of papers for publication on the basis of their findings. Finally, we appointed a rapporteur for the project—Michael Wagner of the University of Wisconsin, Madison—who was neither a paid employee of Meta nor a member of the independent academic research team. For more information, see Supplementary Note . The following authors are employed by Meta: P.B., T.B., A.C.-T., D.D., N.D., A.F., C.K.d.J., W.M., D.M. and C.V.R. Below we list additional declarations from the academic author team: owns Meta Stock (J.S.), conducted paid consulting work for Meta (N.J.S.), received direct research funding from Meta (A.M.G., B.N., J.P., J.S., N.J.S., R.T., J.A.T. and M.W.), received an honorarium/fee from Meta for attending and/or hosting an event/serving as outside expert (M.G., J.P. and J.A.T.), attended a Meta event where food, travel or lodging was paid for by the company (D.F., M.G., S.G.-B., A.M.G., Y.M.K., D.L., N.M., B.N., J.P., J.S., N.J.S., E.T., R.T., J.A.T. and M.W.), owns individual stocks at a related company (J.S.), received direct research funding from a related company (N.J.S. and R.T.), received an honorarium/fee from a related company for attending and/or hosting an event/serving as outside expert (M.G.), attended an event at a related company where food, travel or lodging was paid for by the company (M.G., D.L., N.M., B.N., N.J.S., J.A.T. and M.W.). The other authors declare no competing interests.
