Peterman, Amber https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3921-5936
Wang, Jingying https://orcid.org/0009-0006-7327-8064
Kamto Sonke, Kevin
Steinert, Janina Isabel https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7120-0075
Funding for this research was provided by:
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (INV-043951)
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (INV-043951)
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (INV-043951)
Article History
Received: 26 March 2024
Accepted: 9 December 2025
First Online: 5 February 2026
Competing interests
: A.P. is currently employed by UNICEF, an organization that gives technical assistance and implements SSNs globally, but commenced employment after the manuscript was conditionally accepted. All other authors declare no competing interests.