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Authors
Appel, Ruth E. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2344-2023
Kim, Young Mie
Pan, Jennifer https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4818-0122
Xu, Yiqing
Nimmo, Ben
Thomas, Daniel Robert
Allcott, Hunt
Barberá, Pablo
Brown, Taylor https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5284-338X
Crespo-Tenorio, Adriana
Dimmery, Drew https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9602-6325
Freelon, Deen
Gentzkow, Matthew https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7758-8656
González-Bailón, Sandra https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8372-798X
Guess, Andrew M. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2974-7848
Iyengar, Shanto
Lazer, David https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7991-9110
Malhotra, Neil https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4477-6049
Moehler, Devra https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3631-8630
Nyhan, Brendan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7497-1799
Settle, Jaime
Thorson, Emily https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6514-801X
Tromble, Rebekah
Velasco Rivera, Carlos
Wilkins, Arjun
Wojcieszak, Magdalena https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5456-4483
Xiong, Beixian
Kiewiet de Jonge, Chad
Franco, Annie
Mason, Winter
Stroud, Natalie Jomini https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3528-9986
Tucker, Joshua A. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1321-8650
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
SAP Stanford Graduate Fellowship in Science and Engineering, Stanford Center on Philanthropy and Civil Society PhD Research Fellowship, Stanford Impact Labs Summer Collaborative Research Fellowship.
William and Flora Hewlett Foundation
John S. and James L. Knight Foundation
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Article History
Received: 20 December 2024
Accepted: 27 February 2026
First Online: 6 April 2026
Competing interests
: The costs associated with the research (such as participant fees, recruitment and data collection) were paid by Meta, and some authors are employed by Meta. To ensure transparency and integrity in the research process, we adopted the following conventions. First, none of the academic researchers nor their institutions received financial or any other compensation from Meta for their participation in the project. Second, all of the papers resulting from the US 2020 FIES, including this one, were pre-registered at the Open Science Foundation. Third, for every paper, a set of authors with control rights over the final content of the paper were specified. The authors with control rights for this paper are Y.M.K., J.P. and Y.X. Fourth, Meta publicly agreed that there would be no pre-publication approval of papers for publication on the basis of their findings. Finally, we appointed a rapporteur for the project—M. Wagner of the University of Wisconsin, Madison—who was neither a paid employee of Meta nor a member of the independent academic research team. For more information, see Supplementary Information section . The following authors are employed by Meta: B. Nimmo, D.R.T., P.B., T.B., A.C.-T., D.D., A.F., C.K.d.J., W.M., D.M., C.V.R., A.W. and B.X. Below, we list additional declarations from the academic author team: owns Meta Stock (J.S. and Y.X.), conducted paid consulting work for Meta (N.J.S.), received direct research funding from Meta (A.M.G., S.I., B. Nyhan, J.P., J.S., N.J.S., R.T., J.A.T. and M.W.), received an honorarium/fee from Meta for attending and/or hosting an event/serving as outside expert (M.G., J.P., J.A.T. and N.M.), attended a Meta event where food, travel or lodging was paid for by the company (R.E.A., D.F., M.G., S.G.-B., A.M.G., S.I., Y.M.K., D.L., N.M., B. Nyhan, J.P., J.S., N.J.S., E.T., R.T., J.A.T. and M.W.), own individual stocks at a related company (J.S.), received direct research funding from a related company (N.J.S. and R.T.), received an honorarium/fee from a related company for attending and/or hosting an event/serving as outside expert (M.G.), and attended an event at a related company where food, travel or lodging was paid for by the company (M.G., D.L., N.M., B. Nyhan, N.J.S., J.A.T. and M.W.). The other authors declare no competing interests.
