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Article History

First Online: 28 August 2026

Change Date: 9 September 2026

Change Type: Update

Change Details: In the version of the article initially published, the Supplementary information files were missing. These have now been made available online.

Ethics

Competing interests: C.S. acknowledges grant support from Invitae (previously Archer Dx Inc - collaboration in minimal residual disease sequencing technologies) and Personalis. He is co-chief investigator of the NHS Galleri trial funded by GRAIL and is a paid member of GRAIL’s scientific advisory board. C.S. has been a paid board member for Novartis since March 2026; was previously a paid board member of Bicycle Therapeutics and chair of its clinical advisory group. He has received/receives consultant or advisory fees from Genentech and China Innovation Centre of Roche (CICoR)-Shanghai; Medicxi Ventures; Relay Therapeutics (scientific advisory board member); Saga Diagnostics (scientific advisory board member); and Sarah Cannon Research Institute. He previously received consultancy, advisory fees or honoraria from AstraZeneca, Pfizer and Achilles Therapeutics. C.S. has equity and/or stock options in Bicycle Therapeutics. Novartis, Relay Therapeutics and Saga Diagnostics. He has previously held stock and was co-founder of Achilles Therapeutics. C.S. declares a patent application for methods to detect lung cancer (PCT/US2017/028013); targeting neoantigens (PCT/EP2016/059401); identifying patient response to immune checkpoint blockade (PCT/EP2016/071471); methods for lung cancer detection (US20190106751A1); identifying patients who respond to cancer treatment (PCT/GB2018/051912); determining HLA LOH (PCT/GB2018/052004); predicting survival rates of patients with cancer (PCT/GB2020/050221); methods and systems for tumour monitoring (PCT/EP2022/077987); analysis of HLA alleles transcriptional deregulation (PCT/EP2023/059039); technique for detecting minimal residual disease (PCT/EP2023/065074); relating to the use of plasma proteomics for risk prediction of lung cancer (PCT/EP2025/086701). C.S. is an inventor on a European patent application (PCT/GB2017/053289) relating to assay technology to detect tumour recurrence. This patent has been licensed to a commercial entity and under their terms of employment C.S is due a revenue share of any revenue generated from such license(s). C.M. and S.H. declare no competing interests.