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Article History

Accepted: 5 September 2025

First Online: 6 October 2025

Competing interests

: N.W.S.C. has received research grant support from the NUHS Seed Fund (NUHSRO/2022/RO5 + 6/Seed-Mar/03), the National Medical Research Council Research Training Fellowship (MH 095:003/008-303), the National University of Singapore Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine’s Academic Fellowship Scheme, the NUHS Clinician Scientist Program (NCSP2.0/2024/NUHS/NCWS), the CSDU Clinician–Scientist Grant, and the National Medical Research Council Research Transition Award (TA24jul-0008). M.Y.C. receives salary support from a National Medical Council Research Clinician–Scientist Award — Senior Investigator Category (MOH-000280-00). M.S.K. reports fees from Bayer and Novartis. M.D.M. is a consultant on the advisory panel of or has had paid speaking engagements with Astellas, Boston Scientific, Gilead, LernaBio, Olympus Medical, Perspectum and Roche. J.B. reports consulting for Abbott, American Regent, Amgen, Applied Therapeutic, AskBio, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Boston Scientific, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Cardiac Dimension, Cardiocell, Cardior, CSL Bearing, CVRx, Cytokinetics, Daxor, Edwards, Element Science, Faraday, Foundry, G3P, Innolife, Impulse Dynamics, Imbria, Inventiva, Ionis, Lexicon, Eli Lilly, LivaNova, Janssen, Medtronics, Merck, Occlutech, Owkin, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer, Pharmacosmos, Pharmain, Prolaio, Regeneron, Renibus, Roche, Salamandra, Sanofi, SC Pharma, Secretome, Sequana, SQ Innovation, Tenex, Tricog, Ultromics, Vifor and Zoll. A.J.S. is a consultant for 89Bio, Akero, Aligos, Alnylam, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Avant Sante, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Boston Pharmaceutics, Corcept, Eli Lilly, Fibronostics, Genentech, Genfit, Gilead, Hanmi, Histoindex, Intercept, LG Pharma, Madrigal, Merck, Myovant, Novo Nordisk, Path AI, Pelayo Rubio, Pfizer, Poxel, Regeneron, Salix, Surrozen and Takeda; and has received royalties from Elsevier and Wolter Kluwers; and has stock options with Durect, Inversago, Northsea, Rivus and Tiziana; and receives grant support from Akero, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Echosense, E-scopics, Hanmi, Intercept, Madrigal, Merck, Novo Nordisk and Takeda. The other authors declare no competing interests.