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Article History

Accepted: 27 November 2025

First Online: 2 January 2026

Competing interests

: J.J.V.McM. reports payments to Glasgow University, UK, for clinical trials and other research projects from Alynylam Pharmaceuticals, AstraZeneca, Bayer, the British Heart Foundation, Cardurion, Cytokinetics, the National Institute for Health – National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NIH-NHLBI), Novartis and Roche; personal consultancy fees from Alynylam Pharmaceuticals, AnaCardio, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Biohaven Pharmaceuticals, Cardurion, Chugai Pharmaceuticals, Cytokinetics, DalCor Pharmaceuticals, Novartis, Protherics Medicine Developments and River BioMedics; and personal lecture fees from Alkem Metabolics, ARMGO Pharmaceuticals, AstraZeneca, At the Limits, Canadian Medical and Surgical Knowledge, Centrix Healthcare, Emcure Pharmaceuticals, Eris Lifesciences, Hikma Pharmaceuticals, Hilton Pharmaceuticals, Imagica Health, IMEDIC Pharmaceuticals Micro Labs, Intas Pharmaceuticals, J.B. Chemicals & Pharmaceuticals, Lupin Pharmaceuticals, MCI India, Medscape/Heart.Org., ProAdWise Communications, Radcliffe Cardiology, Regeneron, Sun Pharmaceuticals and Translational Medicine Academy. J.J.V.McM. is a member of Data Safety Monitoring Boards for WCG Clinical Services, and is a director of Global Clinical Trial Partners, which provides clinical trial services such as end point committees and educational programmes. G.Y.H.L. is a National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Senior Investigator. He is a consultant and speaker for Anthos, BMS/Pfizer, Boehringer Ingelheim and Daiichi-Sankyo (no fees are received personally). The other authors declare no competing interests.