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Article History

Accepted: 2 February 2026

First Online: 19 February 2026

Competing interests

: D.L.B. discloses the following relationships: membership of Advisory Boards for Angiowave, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, CellProthera, Cereno Scientific, E-Star Biotech, High Enroll, Janssen, Level Ex, McKinsey, Medscape Cardiology, Merck, NirvaMed, Novo Nordisk, Stasys, and Tourmaline Bio; membership of Board of Directors for American Heart Association New York City, Angiowave (stock options), Bristol Myers Squibb (stock), DRS.LINQ (stock options), and High Enroll (stock); consultant for Broadview Ventures, Corcept Therapeutics, GlaxoSmithKline, Hims, SFJ, Summa Therapeutics, and Youngene; membership of data monitoring committees for Acesion Pharma, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Baim Institute for Clinical Research (formerly Harvard Clinical Research Institute, for the PORTICO trial, funded by St. Jude Medical, now Abbott), Boston Scientific (Chair, PEITHO trial), Cleveland Clinic, Contego Medical (Chair, PERFORMANCE 2), Duke Clinical Research Institute, Mayo Clinic, Mount Sinai School of Medicine (for the ENVISAGE trial, funded by Daiichi Sankyo; for the ABILITY-DM trial, funded by Concept Medical; for ALLAY-HF, funded by Alleviant Medical), Novartis, Population Health Research Institute, and Rutgers University (for the NIH-funded MINT trial); honoraria from the American College of Cardiology (Senior Associate Editor, Clinical Trials and News, ACC.org; Chair, ACC Accreditation Oversight Committee), Arnold and Porter law firm (work related to Sanofi/Bristol-Myers Squibb clopidogrel litigation), Baim Institute for Clinical Research (formerly Harvard Clinical Research Institute; AEGIS-II executive committee funded by CSL Behring), Belvoir Publications (Editor in Chief, Harvard Heart Letter ), Canadian Medical and Surgical Knowledge Translation Research Group (clinical trial steering committees), CSL Behring (AHA lecture), Cowen and Company, Duke Clinical Research Institute (clinical trial steering committees, including for the PRONOUNCE trial, funded by Ferring Pharmaceuticals), HMP Global (Editor in Chief, Journal of Invasive Cardiology ), Journal of the American College of Cardiology (Guest Editor; Associate Editor), Level Ex, Medtelligence/ReachMD (CME steering committees), MJH Life Sciences, Oakstone CME (Course Director, Comprehensive Review of Interventional Cardiology), Piper Sandler, Population Health Research Institute (for the COMPASS operations committee, publications committee, steering committee, and USA national co-leader, funded by Bayer), WebMD (CME steering committees), and Wiley (steering committee); Clinical Cardiology (Deputy Editor); named on a patent for sotagliflozin (assigned to Brigham and Women’s Hospital who assigned to Lexicon; neither I nor Brigham and Women’s Hospital receive any income from this patent); research funding from Abbott, Acesion Pharma, Afimmune, Aker Biomarine, Alnylam, Amarin, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Beren, Boehringer Ingelheim, Boston Scientific, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Cardax, CellProthera, Cereno Scientific, Chiesi, CinCor, Cleerly, CSL Behring, Faraday Pharmaceuticals, Ferring Pharmaceuticals, Fractyl, Garmin, HLS Therapeutics, Idorsia, Ironwood, Ischemix, Janssen, Javelin, Lexicon, Lilly, Medtronic, Merck, Moderna, MyoKardia, NirvaMed, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Otsuka, Owkin, Pfizer, PhaseBio, PLx Pharma, Recardio, Regeneron, Reid Hoffman Foundation, Roche, Sanofi, Stasys, Synaptic, The Medicines Company, Youngene, and 89Bio; royalties from Elsevier (Editor, Braunwald’s Heart Disease ); and Cleerly (site co-investigator). P.G.S. discloses the following relationships: research grants from Amarin and Sanofi; membership of clinical trial steering committee, clinical events committee, and data and safety monitoring board for Amarin, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Idorsia, Janssen, Merck, Novartis, Pfizer and Sanofi; consulting or speaking for Amarin, Amgen, BMS, Novo Nordisk, Novartis and Pfizer; Senior Associate Editor of Circulation ; and Chief Medical Officer at Bioquantis. The other authors declare no competing interests.