Document is current

Article History

Accepted: 15 October 2025

First Online: 11 November 2025

Competing interests

: T.M. has received research funding (to institution) from AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb (BMS), G1 Therapeutics, MSD, Merck Serono, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche, SFJ Pharmaceuticals, Takeda and XCovery; consulting fees from and/or been an advisory board member for AbbVie, ACEA Therapeutics, Adagene, Alentis Therapeutics, Alpha Biopharma, Amgen, Amoy Diagnostics, AnHeart Therapeutics, AstraZeneca, AVEO Pharmaceuticals, Bayer, BeiGene, BerGenBio, Berry Oncology, Blueprint Medicines, Boehringer Ingelheim, BMS, Bowtie Life Insurance, Bridge Biotherapeutics, C4 Therapeutics, Cirina, Covidien, CStone Pharmaceuticals, Curio Science, D3 Bio, Da Volterra, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai, Elevation Oncology, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Fishawack Facilitate, G1 Therapeutics, geneDecode, Genentech, Gilead, GLG, Gritstone Oncology, Guardant Health, Hengrui Therapeutics, HutchMed, Ignyta, Illumina, Imagene AI, Incyte, Inivata, InxMed, IQVIA, Janssen, Johnson & Johnson, Lakeshore Biotech, Lilly, Loxo Oncology, Lucence Health, Lunit USA, Medscape, Medtronic, Merck Serono, Mirati Therapeutics, MiRXES, MoreHealth, MSD, New Frontier, Ningbo Newbay Technology Development, Novartis, Novocure, Omega Therapeutics, OrigiMed, OSE Immunotherapeutics, Phanes Therapeutics, PeerVoice, Pfizer, Prenetics, PrIME Oncology, Puma Biotechnology, Qiming Development, Regeneron, Roche/Foundation Medicine, Sanofi–Aventis, Schrödinger, SFJ Pharmaceuticals, Simcere of America, Simcere Zaiming, Summit Therapeutics, Synergy Research, Takeda, Tigermed, Vertex, Virtus Medical, XENCOR and Yuhan Corporation; speaker’s fees from ACEA Therapeutics, Alpha Biopharma, Amgen, Amoy Diagnostics, AstraZeneca, BeiGene, Boehringer Ingelheim, BMS, Daiichi Sankyo, Daz Group, Fishawack Facilitate, InMed Medical Communication, Janssen, Jiahui Holdings, LiangYiHui Healthcare, Lilly, Lucence Health, MD Health Brazil, Medscape, Merck, MiRXES, MSD, Novartis, OrigiMed, PeerVoice, P. Permanyer, Pfizer, Physicians’ Education Resource, PrIME Oncology, Research to Practice, Roche/Foundation Medicine, Sanofi–Aventis, Shanghai BeBirds, Shanghai Promedican Pharmaceuticals, Taiho, Takeda and Touch Independent Medical Education; has stock or other ownership interests in ACT Genomics–Sanomics Group Oncology, Alentis Therapeutics, AstraZeneca, Aurora Tele-Oncology, Biolidics, Bowtie Life Insurance, D3 Bio, HutchMed, Illumos, Insighta, Lakeshore Biotech, Lunit USA, Phanes Therapeutics, Prenetics and Virtus Medical; and serves as a board member and/or has leadership roles at AstraZeneca, Aurora Tele-Oncology, Altum, EPOCH Biosciences, Genómica, HutchMed and Insighta, all outside the submitted work. X.L. has received consulting or advisory fees from AbbVie, Abion Bio, ArriVent, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BlossomHill Therapeutics, Blueprint Medicines, Boehringer Ingelheim, Daiichi Sankyo, Eli Lilly, EMD Serono (Merck), Hengrui Therapeutics, Janssen, Novartis, Regeneron, Sensei Biotherapeutics, Spectrum Pharmaceuticals, SystImmune, Taiho and Teligene; research funding (to institution) from ArriVent, Boehringer Ingelheim, Dizal, Eli Lilly, EMD Serono, Janssen, Regeneron, Takeda, Teligene and ThermoFisher; and travel support from EMD Serono, Janssen and Spectrum Pharmaceutics. The other authors declare no competing interests.