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Article History

Accepted: 21 November 2025

First Online: 5 January 2026

Competing interests

: T.A.Y. declares research funding from Aileron Therapeutics, AstraZeneca, Bayer Healthcare Pharmaceutical, Calithera Biosciences, Curis, CytomX Therapeutics, Daiichi Sankyo, Debiopharm International, eFFECTOR Therapeutics, Genentech, Guardant Health, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Klus Pharma, Novartis, Puma Biotechnology, Taiho Pharmaceutical, Takeda Pharmaceutical and Zymeworks; honoraria from Dava Oncology; consultancy/advisory roles for AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals, Becton Dickinson, Calibr (a division of Scripps Research), Cybrexa, Daiichi Sankyo, Dava Oncology, Debiopharm, EcoR1 Capital, eFFECTOR Therapeutics, Elevation Oncology, Exelixis, FogPharma, go Therapeutics, GT Aperion, Guardant Health, Harbinger Health, Incyte, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Karyopharm Therapeutics, Kivu Biosciences, LegoChem Biosciences, Lengo Therapeutics, LOXO-Oncology, Menarini Group, Mersana Therapeutics, Molecular Templates, OnCusp Therapeutics, Protai Bio, Ribometrix, Sanofi Pharmaceuticals, Seagen, Tallac Therapeutics, Tempus, Theratechnologies, Zentalis Pharmaceuticals and Zymeworks; travel-related support from the Cholangiocarcinoma Foundation Dava Oncology, the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) and the European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO); and institutional funding and technology support from Royal Philips. J.R. declares non-financial support and reasonable reimbursement for travel from 280-Biotech, the American Society of Medical Oncology (ASCO), Dava Oncology, ESMO, the National Taiwan University Cancer Center and STOP Cancer; consulting and travel fees from Aadi, Amgen, Bridgebio (including serving on scientific advisory boards) and from Ellipses Pharma, IONCTURA, Mekanistic, Merus, MonteRosa and Sardona; consulting fees from Axiom, Boxer Capital, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Guidepoint, Tang Advisors and the Vall d’Hebron Institute of Oncology; research funding from 280 Bio, AstraZeneca, Blueprint Medicines, Hummingbird, Merck Sharp & Dohme and the Vall d’Hebron Institute of Oncology/Cancer Core Europe; and serving as an investigator in clinical trials sponsored by AadiBioscience, Adcentrix, Alnylam, Alterome, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bicycle Therapeutics, Beigene, BioAlta, BioTheryX, C4 Therapeutics, Cancer Core Europe, Debio, Exelixis, Fog Pharmaceuticals, ForeBio, FusionPharma, GlaxoSmithKline, Hotspot Pharma, Hummingbird, Hutchinson MediPharma, Ideaya, Immuneering Corp, Incyte, Kelun-Biotech, Kinnate, Linnaeus Therapeutics, LOXO-Oncology, MapKure, Merus, Mirati, MonteRosa, Novartis, Nuvectis Pharma, Pfizer, Relay, Roche Pharmaceuticals, Scorpion Therapeutics, Storm Therapeutics, Symphogen, Taiho Pharmaceutical, Tango Therapeutics, Tyra, Vividion and Yingli. S.K. is a scientific adviser for VieCure. D.H. declares serving on advisory boards for and consulting fees from AstraZeneca and Carden Jennings. A.K. declares salary support from BostonGene. F.M.-B. declares research funding from Aileron Therapeutics, AstraZeneca, Bayer Healthcare Pharmaceutical, Calithera Biosciences, Curis, CytomX Therapeutics, Daiichi Sankyo, Debiopharm International, eFFECTOR Therapeutics, Genentech, Guardant Health, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Klus Pharma, Novartis, Puma Biotechnology, Takeda Pharmaceutical, Taiho Pharmaceutical and Zymeworks; honoraria from Dava Oncology; consultancy/advisory roles for AstraZeneca, Becton Dickinson, Calibr (a division of Scripps Research), Cybrexa, Daiichi Sankyo, Dava Oncology, Debiopharm, EcoR1 Capital, eFFECTOR Therapeutics, Elevation Oncology, Exelixis, FogPharma, go Therapeutics, GT Aperion, Guardant Health, Harbinger Health, Incyte, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Karyopharm Therapeutics, Kivu Biosciences, LegoChem Biosciences, Lengo Therapeutics, LOXO-Oncology, Menarini Group, Mersana Therapeutics, Molecular Templates, OnCusp Therapeutics, Protai Bio, Ribometrix, Sanofi Pharmaceuticals, Seagen, Theratechnologies, Tallac Therapeutics, Tempus, Zentalis Pharmaceuticals and Zymeworks; travel-related support from the Cholangiocarcinoma Foundation, Dava Oncology, EORTC and ESMO; and institutional funding and technology support from Royal Philips. The other authors declare no competing interests. MD Anderson received licensing fees for the Precision Oncology Decision Support (PODS) database from Philips Healthcare, which supported development of this system at MD Anderson.