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Article History

Accepted: 24 April 2026

First Online: 15 May 2026

Ethics

Competing interests: F.L. reports research grants to their institution from AstraZeneca, BeiGene (BeOne), Daiichi Sankyo and Gilead Sciences, and personal fees from Amgen, ArtTempi, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Boehringer Ingelheim, Daiichi Sankyo, Eli Lilly, Elsevier, Gilead Sciences, Incyte, Iomedico, Medscape, MedUpdate, Merck Serono, MSD, PAGE, Roche, Servier, StreamedUp! and VJ Oncology, all outside the submitted work. Y.Y.J. reports research funding from Astellas, AstraZeneca, Arcus Biosciences, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Cycle for Survival, the US Department of Defense, Eli Lilly, Fred’s Team, Genentech/Roche, Inspirna, Merck, the National Cancer Institute (NCI), Stand Up 2 Cancer and Transcenta; has served on advisory boards and/or as a consultant for AbbVie, AlphaSights, AmerisourceBergen, Arcus Biosciences, AskGene Pharma, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Basilea Pharmaceutica, Bayer, BeiGene (BeOne), Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Clinical Care Options, Daiichi Sankyo, Debbie’s Dream Foundation, eChina Health, Ed Med Resources (OncInfo), Eisai, Eli Lilly, Geneos Therapeutics, Gilead Sciences, GlaxoSmithKline, Guardant Health, H.C. Wainwright & Co., Health Advances, HMP Global, I3Health, Imedex, Imugene, Inspirna, Lynx Health, Mashup Media, Master Clinician Alliance, Merck, Merck Serono, Mersana Therapeutics, Michael J. Hennessy Associates, Oncology News, OncoDaily, Paradigm Medical Communications, PeerMD, PeerView Institute, Pfizer, Physician’s Education Resource, Research to Practice, Sanofi Genzyme, Seagen, Silverback Therapeutics, Suzhou Liangyihui Network Technology Co., Talem Health, TotalCME, WebMD and Zymeworks; and holds stock options in Inspirna and Veda Life Sciences, all outside the submitted work. S.Y.R. reports institutional research funding from MSD; institutional grants or contracts from ABL BIO, ALX Oncology, Amgen, Arcus Biosciences, Astellas, AstraZeneca, BeiGene (BeOne), Bold Therapeutics, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai, Ipsen, Leap Therapeutics, MacroGenics, MedPacto, Merck, MSD, Ono Pharmaceutical, Pfizer, Seagen, Taiho Pharmaceutical and Zymeworks; consulting fees from LG Chem and Indivumed Therapeutics; honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers’ bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from Amgen, Astellas, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai, Eli Lilly, Ipsen, MSD and Sanofi-Aventis; and participation on data safety monitoring boards and/or advisory boards for Amgen, Arcus Biosciences and Toray Medical, all outside the submitted work. M.N. reports course sponsorship to their institution from Astellas, Bristol Myers Squibb, Intuitive Surgical, Medtronic and MSD; and advisory board participation for Astellas, AstraZeneca and MSD, all outside the submitted work. K.S. reports personal fees for consulting and/or advisory roles from AbbVie, ALX Oncology, Amgen, Arcus Biosciences, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, CMIC Co. Daiichi Sankyo, eChina Health, Elevation Oncology, Gilead Sciences, GlaxoSmithKline, Guardant Health Japan, HEALIOS, Janssen, Leap Therapeutics, Merck, Moderna, Novartis, Oncolys BioPharma, Ono Pharmaceutical, Phans Therapeutics, Revolution Medicines, Sanofi, Scandion Oncology, Suzhou Liangyihui Network Technology Co., Takeda and Zymeworks; honoraria from Astellas, AstraZeneca Bristol Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, Janssen and Ono Pharmaceutical; and institutional research funding from Amgen, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Chugai, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai, Incyte, Medpace Japan, Merck, Ono Pharmaceutical, PPD-SNBL, PRA Health Sciences, Syneos Health, Taiho Pharmaceutical and Toray, all outside the submitted work. E.C.S. discloses grants or contracts from AstraZeneca, BeiGene, Bristol Myers Squibb, Novartis and Roche; consulting fees from AbbVie, Astellas, AstraZeneca, BeiGene, Bristol Myers Squibb, Gilead Sciences, Novartis, Pfizer, TCypherBio, Viracta and Zymeworks; payment or honoraria from Amgen, Astellas, AstraZeneca, BeiGene, Bristol Myers Squibb, MSD, Merck, Mirati and Novartis; support for attending meetings and/or travel from Amgen, BeiGene and Mirati; participation on data safety monitoring boards and/or advisory boards for Amgen, AstraZeneca, Daiichi Sankyo, Jazz and Zymeworks, all outside the submitted work; and holds leadership roles as Chair of the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) Gastrointestinal Tract Cancer Group, Chair of the European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO) Guidelines Committee and Trustee of the UK and Ireland Oesophagogastric Cancer Group (UKIOG). The other authors declare no competing interests.