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Article History

Accepted: 16 July 2026

First Online: 7 August 2026

Ethics

Competing interests: A.V. declares speaker’s fees from Merck Serono. M.P. declares financial interests in Everzom as co-founder. E.Y.T.W. has received honoraria and/or reimbursement for travel (institutional) from Ipsen, Merck, MSD Oncology, Pierre Fabre, Taiho, and Takeda and has served on advisory boards for Daiichi Sankyo, Ipsen and Taiho. F.M.G.d.B. declares consultancy roles for Incyte, Indena, IQVIA, Mattioli 1885, McCann Health, Menarini, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Novartis, Roche and Taiho; management advisory board roles for AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Incyte, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Roche, Sanofi and Taiho; speaker’s bureau from Accmed, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Dynamicon Education, Effetti, European School of Oncology, EVENTS, Idea-z, Motore Sanità, Nadirex and Sanofi; and travel expenses from AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Incyte, Novartis, Roche and Sanofi. S.H. has served as a member of data safety monitoring committees for Amgen, Bristol Myers Squibb, BeOne, CG Oncology, Janssen, and Sanofi and has received research funding (institutional) from the American Society of Clinical Oncology and the Prostate Cancer Foundation. R.D. is an employee of Oncoclínicas & Co and OC Medicina de Precisão; declares consultancy roles for AstraZeneca, Foundation Medicine, Illumina, Pfizer and Roche; has received honoraria from Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Foundation Medicine, Gilead, GlaxoSmithKline, GuardantHealth, Ipsen, Johnson & Johnson, Libbs, Lilly, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Pfizer, Roche, Sanofi, Servier, and Takeda and research grants from AstraZeneca, Daiichi Sankyo, GlaxoSmithKline, Merck, Novartis and Pfizer; and is an investor in Trialing Health. L.V. reports speaker’s fees from Bristol Myers Squibb; institutional principle investigator roles for trials funded by Abbvie, Adaptimmune, Aduro Biotech, Agios Pharmaceuticals, Amgen, Argen-X Bvba, Arno Therapeutics, Astex Pharmaceuticals, AstraZeneca, Aveo, Basilea Pharmaceutica International, Bayer Healthcare, To-BBB Technologies, Beigene, Blueprint Medicines, Boehringer Ingelheim, Boston Pharmaceuticals, Bristol Myers Squibb, Celgene, Chugai Pharmaceutical, Clovis Oncology, Cullinan-Apollo, Daiichi Sankyo, Debiopharm, Eisai, Eli Lilly, Exelixis, Faron Pharmaceuticals, Forma Tharapeutics, Gamamabs, Genentech, GlaxoSmithKline, H3 Biomedicine, Hoffmann La Roche, Imcheck Therapeutics, Innate Pharma, Institut De Recherche Pierre Fabre, Iris Servier, Janssen Cilag, Janssen Research Foundation, Kura Oncology, Kyowa Kirin, Lilly, Loxo Oncology, Lytix Biopharma, Medimmune, Menarini, Merck Sharp & Dohme Chibret, Merrimack Pharmaceuticals, Merus, Millennium Pharmaceuticals, Molecular Partners, Nanobiotix, Nektar Therapeutics, Novartis Pharma, Octimet Oncology, Oncoethix, Oncopeptides, Orion Pharma, Ose Pharma, Pfizer, Pharma Mar, Pierre Fabre, Medicament, Roche, Sanofi Aventis, Seattle Genetics, Sotio, Syros Pharmaceuticals, Taiho Pharma, Tesaro and Xencor; research grants from AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Boehringer Ingelheim, Janssen Cilag, Merck, Novartis, Onxeo, Pfizer, Roche and Sanofi; and non-financial support (drug supplied) from AstraZeneca, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Boehringer Ingelheim, Medimmune, Merck, NH TherAGuiX, Onxeo and Pfizer. A.P. declares speaker’s fees from Aristea, AstraZeneca, Daiichi Sankyo, Eli Lilly, EVENTS, Gilead, Hoffmann La Roche, IQUVIA, Johnson & Johnson, Novartis, Pfizer, Regeneron and Takeda; advisory board roles for Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Johnson & Johnson, MEDSIR, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Pfizer and Summit Therapeutics; institutional principle investigator roles for trials funded by AstraZeneca, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Nuvalent, Roche, and Spectrum; training of personnel for Italfarmaco and AstraZeneca; and travel grants for Johnson & Johnson and Roche. A.P. is President of the European Interdisciplinary Society of AI in Cancer Research (ESAC) and project lead of I3LUNG. R.B.P. reports grants from Arnold Ventures, the Department of Defense, the Emerson Collective, Humana, Mendel.ai, the National Institutes of Health, the NCCN Foundation, the Prostate Cancer Foundation, Schmidt Futures and the Veterans Health Administration; personal fees from and equity in GNS Healthcare, Main Street Health, Mendel.ai, Onc.AI and Thyme Care; personal fees from Archetype Therapeutics, Biofourmis, ConcertAI, the Cancer Study Group, CreditSuisse, G1 Therapeutics, Humana, Nanology and Optinosis; and stock options in Counsel Health; honoraria from Flatiron and Medscape. R.B.P. is a board member (unpaid) of the American Cancer Society and the Coalition to Transform Advanced Care; is an editor for the Journal of Clinical Oncology ; and has served on a leadership consortium (unpaid) at the National Quality Forum, all outside the submitted work. A.L.E., D.S., R.R., N.S., D.S.W.T., M.K., J.N., M.B. and S.B. declare no competing interests.