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Article History

Accepted: 16 July 2025

First Online: 21 August 2025

Competing interests

: B.B. declares advisory board participation (paid to institution): Abbvie, Biontech SE, BristolMyerSquibb, Chugai Pharmaceutical, CureVac AG, Daiichi Sankyo, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pharmamar, Regeneron, Sanofi Aventis, Turning Point Therapeutics; conseil (paid to institution): Abbvie, Eli Lilly, Ellipses pharma Ltd, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Genmab, Immunocore, Janssen, MSD, Ose Immunotherapeutics, Owkin, Taiho Oncology; Steering Committee (paid to institution): AstraZeneca, Beigene, GENMAB A/S, GlaxoSmithKline, Janssen, MSD, Ose Immunotherapeutics, Pharmamar, Roche-Genentech, Sanofi, Takeda; speaker (paid to institution): Abbvie, AstraZeneca, Chugai Pharmaceutical, Daichii Sankyo, Hedera Dx, Janssen, MSD, Roche, Sanofi Aventis and Springer Healthcare Ltd., none related to this work. L.E.L.H. declares grants and/or research support (all paid to institution) from Roche, Boehringer Ingelheim, AstraZeneca, Takeda, Merck, Pfizer, Novartis and Gilead; is on the advisory boards (all to institution) of Amgen, Boehringer Ingelheim, Lilly, Novartis, Pfizer, Takeda, Merck, Janssen, Merck Sharp & Dohme (MSD), AnHeart Therapeutics, Bayer, Daiichi, Pierre Fabre, BMS, AbbVie, AstraZeneca and Summit Therapeutics; was a speaker on educational seminars or webinars for AstraZeneca, Bayer, Lilly, MSD, high5oncology, Takeda, Janssen, GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), Sanofi and Pfizer (all paid to the institution), and Medtalks, Benecke, VJOncology and Medimix (personal payment); performed local principal investigator pharma studies (all paid to institution) with AstraZeneca, GSK, Novartis, Merck, Roche, Takeda, Blueprint, Mirati, AbbVie, Gilead, MSD, Pfizer, Amgen and Boehringer Ingelheim; and was on member guideline committees in a personal capacity for Dutch guidelines on non-small cell lung cancer, brain metastases and leptomeningeal metastases (personal payment), and ESMO guidelines on non-small cell lung cancer and small cell lung cancer (unpaid). J.D.S. declares grants to the institution from AstraZeneca, MSD, Roche, BMS, CLS Therapeutics, Protalix Biotherapeutics, Pfizer and Regeneron; consulting fees from AstraZeneca, Merck, Roche, BMS, Novartis, Chemocentryx, Amgen, Protalix Biotherapeutics, Xenetic Biosciences, Regeneron, Eisai and Pfizer; payment for a speaking role from Peerview, OncLive and Medscape; support for attending meetings or travel from AstraZeneca, Merck and BMS; participating on a clinical trial safety monitoring board for AstraZeneca; and receiving equipment, materials, drugs, gifts or other services via grants to the institution from Roche, MSD, BMS and AstraZeneca. I.I.W. declares consulting or advisory roles for AstraZeneca/MedImmune, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Genentech/Roche, GlaxoSmithKline, Guardant Health, HTG Molecular Diagnostics, Merck, MSD Oncology, OncoCyte, Jansen, Novartis, Flame Inc., Regeneron and Pfizer; grants and personal fees from Genentech/Roche, Bristol Myers Squibb, AstraZeneca/MedImmune, HTG Molecular, Merck and Guardant Health; personal fees from GlaxoSmithKline and Oncocyte, Daiichi Sankyo, Roche, AstraZeneca, Regeneron, Sanofi, Pfizer and Bayer; research funding (paid to the institution) from 4D Molecular Therapeutics, Adaptimmune, Adaptive Biotechnologies, Akoya Biosciences, Amgen, Bayer, EMD Serono, Genentech, Guardant Health, HTG Molecular Diagnostics, Iovance Biotherapeutics, Johnson & Johnson, Karus Therapeutics, MedImmune, Merck, Novartis, OncoPlex Diagnostics, Pfizer, Takeda and Novartis. D.P. declares a consulting role for MVision AI. L.Z. and D.F. declare no competing interests.