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Article History

Accepted: 29 October 2025

First Online: 28 November 2025

Competing interests

: O.B. is the inventor of patent no. WO2021195431A1, which was held by Brigham and Women’s Hospital and General Biophysics for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. O.B. and N.R. are the co-inventors of patent no. WO2024073372A2, which is held by Brigham and Women’s Hospital and the Regents of the University of California, and uses anti-ITGB8 antibodies to treat neurodegenerative diseases. O.B. is a cofounder on the scientific advisory board of Glial Therapeutics, collaborates with GSK and Regulus Therapeutics, has research funding from Sanofi and GSK, and consults for/has received honoraria from UCB, Camp4, Ono Pharma USA and General Biophysics. O.B. has a financial interest in Glial Therapeutics, a company developing a new therapy to target ITGB8–TGFβ signalling to treat Alzheimer’s disease. O.B.’s interests were reviewed and managed by BWH and Mass General Brigham, in accordance with their conflict-of-interest policies. N.R. is the inventor of intellectual property WO2017042633A3, which forms the basis for developing PD-L1 immunotherapy for AD. The other authors declare no competing interests.