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Article History
Received: 11 July 2023
Accepted: 8 July 2025
First Online: 20 August 2025
Competing interests
: K.Y.T. serves as a consultant to NFlection Therapeutics, Sun Pharma, DXB Biosciences. R.F. reports a consulting or advisory role at Regeneron, Sanofi, Elevar Therapeutics, Remix, Eisai, Bioatlas, Coherus in the past 24 months and research Funds (Inst) from Prelude, Ayala, Merck, Pfizer, Rakuten, EMD Serono, ISA, Viracta and Gilead in the past 24 months. N.D.G. reports institutional research funding from Regeneron and Ascendis Pharmaceuticals; and advisory board and consulting fees from PDS Biotechnology, Merck, Regeneron and GeoVax; royalties from UpToDate. M.A.D. has been a consultant to Replimmune, Nurix, Roche/Genentech, Array, Pfizer, Novartis, BMS, GSK, Sanofi-Aventis, Vaccinex, Apexigen, Eisai, Iovance, Merck and ABM Therapeutics, and has been the principal investigator of research grants to MD Anderson by Roche/Genentech, GSK, Sanofi-Aventis, Merck, Myriad, Oncothyreon, Pfizer, ABM Therapeutics and LEAD Pharma. N.J.D. received a reagent from Eterna Therapeutics, unrelated to the work presented here. J.A.W. is listed as an inventor on a US patent application (PCT/US17/53.717) submitted by the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center that covers methods to enhance immune checkpoint blockade responses by modulating the microbiome; she reports compensation for speaker’s bureau and honoraria from PeerView and serves as a consultant and/or advisory board member for Gustave Roussy Cancer Center, OSE Immunotherapeutics, Bayer Therapeutics, James Cancer Center OSU and Daiichi Sankyo. N.I.K. is an advisory board member for Regeneron, Merck, Replimune, Immunocore, Iovance Biotherapeutics, Novartis, IO Biotech, MyCareGorithm and HUYABIO International; received travel support from Castle Biosciences and Regeneron; is a data safety monitoring board member for Incyte and AstraZeneca; a scientific advisory board member for T-Knife Therapeutics; a study steering committee member for BMS, Nektar, Regeneron and Replimune; holds common stock in Bellicum Pharmaceuticals and Amarin; and has received research funding (to institution) from BMS, Merck, Regeneron, Replimune, GSK, Celgene, Novartis, IDEAYA Biosciences, Modulation Therapeutics and HUYABIO International. P.S. is a scientific advisory committee member for Adaptive Biotechnologies, Akoya Biosciences, Apricity, Asher Bio, BioAtla, BioNTech, Catalio, C-Reveal Therapeutics, Dragonfly Therapeutics, Earli, Enable Medicine, Glympse, Henlius/Hengenix, Hummingbird, ImaginAb, InterVenn Biosciences, JSL Health, Lytix Biopharma, Marker Therapeutics, Matrisome, NTx, Oncolytics, Osteologic, PBM Capital, Phenomic Al, Polaris Pharma, Soley Therapeutics, Sporos, Time Bioventures, Two Bear Capital, Vironexis and Xilis; holds private investments in Affini-T, Candel Therapeutics, LAVA Therapeutics, Spotlight and Trained Therapeutix Discovery. N.D.G. reports institutional research funding from Regeneron Pharmaceuticals and Ascendis Pharma; speaker honoraria from AiCME and OncLive; and is an advisory board member and received consulting fees from PDS Biotechnology, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Merck and GeoVax. G.A.C. is one of the scientific founders of Ithax Pharmaceuticals. C.H. declares no competing interests related to ‘A Randomized Phase II Trial of Induction Pembrolizumab Followed by Surgery Versus Surgery Alone for Resectable Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma’. M.K.W. has participated in advisory boards for Regeneron, Castle Biosciences, Replimune, Incyte and Sun Pharma. M.R.M. is a paid advisor for Feldan, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Replimune, Philogen, Sanofi, Stamford Pharmaceuticals and Sun Pharmaceuticals; and received research funding from Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Replimune, Sanofi, Solgel and Senhwa. K. Rai has equity in Jivanu Therapeutics and Koshika Therapeutics. The other authors declare no competing interests.