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Article History

Received: 8 June 2025

Accepted: 12 June 2026

First Online: 22 July 2026

Ethics

Competing interests: P.A.O. declares research funding from and/or has advised Agenus, Arcturus, Amgen, Armo BioSciences, Array, AstraZeneca/MedImmune, Bristol-Meyers Squibb, Celldex, CytomX, Evaxion,Immunetune, Imunon, LGChem, Merck, Neon Therapeutics (now BioNTechUS), Novartis, Pharmajet, Phio, Pfizer, Oncorus, Roche/Genentech, Servier and Xencor. T.K.C. reports grants, personal fees and non-financial support from Roche and Genentech during the conduct of the study and reports institutional and/or personal, paid and/or unpaid, support for research, advisory boards, consultancy and/or honoraria from Alkermes, AstraZeneca, Aravive, Aveo, Bayer, Bristol Myers-Squibb, Calithera, Circle Pharma, Eisai, EMD Serono, Exelixis, GlaxoSmithKline, Gilead, IQVA, Infinity, Ipsen, Jansen, Kanaph, Lilly, Merck, Nikang, Nuscan, Novartis, Oncohost, Pfizer, Roche, Sanofi/Aventis, Scholar Rock, Surface Oncology, Takeda, Tempest, Up-To-Date and CME events (Peerview, OncLive, MJH and others), outside the submitted work; institutional patents filed on molecular alterations and immunotherapy response/toxicity and ctDNA; equity in Tempest, Pionyr, Osel, Precede Bio, CureResponse and InnDura Therapeutics, Primium; is on committees for NCCN, GU steering committee, ASCO/ESMO, ACCRU, KidneyCan and ODAC; mentored several non-US citizens on research projects with potential funding (in part) from non-US sources/foreign components. J.G.A. is a paid consultant to Moderna. K.J.L. holds equity in Standard BioTools and is on the scientific advisory board for MBQ Pharma. D.B.K. is a scientific advisor for Immunitrack, a wholly owned subsidiary of Eli Lilly and Company and Breakbio. D.B.K. owns equity in Affimed, Agenus, Armata Pharmaceuticals, Breakbio, BioMarin Pharmaceutical, Celldex Therapeutics, Editas Medicine, Immunitybio, Lexicon Pharmaceuticals. Moderna, Sana Biotechnologies and Summit Therapeutics. F.C. is an academic founder of Curio Biosciences and Doppler Biosciences and scientific advisor for Amber Bio. F.C.’s interests were reviewed and managed by the Braod Institute in accordance with their conflict-of-interest policies. S.S. reports receiving commercial research grants from Bristol Myers Squibb, AstraZeneca, Exelixis, Merck, NiKang Therapeutics and Arsenal Biosciences; is a consultant/advisory board member for Merck, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, CRISPR Therapeutics, AACR and NCI; receives royalties from Biogenex; and mentored several non-United States citizens on research projects with potential funding (in part) from non-United States sources/foreign components. D.A.B. reports share options in Elephas; advisory board, consulting or personal fees from Cancer Expert Now, Adnovate Strategies, MDedge, CancerNetwork, Catenion, OncLive, Cello Health BioConsulting, PWW Consulting, Haymarket Medical Network, Aptitude Health, ASCO Post and Harborside, Targeted Oncology, Merck, Pfizer, MedScape, Accolade 2nd MD, DLA Piper, Dechert, AbbVie, Compugen, Link Cell Therapies, Scholar Rock, NeoMorph, Nimbus, Exelixis, AVEO, Eisai, Daiichi Sankyo and Elephas; and research support from Exelixis and AstraZeneca, outside of the submitted work. C.J.W. is an equity holder of BioNTech, receives research funding from Pharmacyclics, and is a scientific advisory board member of Repertoire, Aethon Therapeutics, Nature’s Toolbox and Adventris. The other authors declare no competing interests.