Liu, Haijiao https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2529-516X
Noguera-Ortega, Estela https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6507-0673
Dong, Xuanqi
Lee, Won Dong https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2344-171X
Chang, Jeehan
Aydin, Sezin Aday https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4396-7812
Li, Yumei
Shin, Yonghee
Shi, Xinyi
Liousia, Maria
Martinez, Marina C.
Brotman, Joshua J. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1942-719X
Kim, Soyeon https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4522-9154
Chen, Zeyu
Wang, Anni https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7029-8453
Ou, Zirui
Paek, Jungwook
Park, Ju Young
Liu, Aidi https://orcid.org/0009-0002-5574-195X
Hu, Haonan
Xiao, Zebin
Racca, Dora Maria https://orcid.org/0009-0006-9852-6386
Kim, Se-jeong
Worthen, G. Scott
Guo, Wei https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9251-0360
Puré, Ellen https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2107-3711
Kang, Taewook
Rabinowitz, Joshua D. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1247-4727
Wherry, E. John https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0477-1956
Moon, Edmund K.
Albelda, Steven M.
Huh, Dan Dongeun https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5718-6884
Funding for this research was provided by:
Cancer Research Institute (Technology Impact Award)
National Science Foundation (CMMI:15-48571)
Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy
National Research Foundation (RS-2023-00259341)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (1DP2HL127720-01, R01CA163591, DP1DK113643, F32DK127843, R01CA163591, DP1DK113643)
Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research
National Research Foundation of Korea (RS-2023-00259341)
Article History
Received: 29 September 2023
Accepted: 3 September 2025
First Online: 17 October 2025
Competing interests
: D.D.H. is a co-founder of Vivodyne and holds equity in the company. D.D.H. and H.L. are inventors on a patent application for tumor-on-a-chip technology. E.J.W. holds equity and has other ownership interests in Arseal Bio, Danger Bio and Surface Oncology. E.J.W. has consulting or advisory role at Danger Bio, Jaenssen, Marengo Therapeutics, NewLimit, Pluto Immunotherapeutics, Related Sciences, Santa Ana Bio, Surface Oncology and Synthekine. S.M.A. is a scientific founder and holds equity in Capstan Therapeutics. S.M.A. is on the scientific advisory boards of Verismo and Bio4t2. E.P. is a scientific founder and holds equity in Capstan Therapeutics. E.P. is on the scientific advisory boards of Parthenon Therapeutics and POINT Biopharma. E.P. is an inventor (University of Pennsylvania) on a patent (10329355) and patent application for the 4G5 FAP CAR (Patent Applications 20210087294 and 20210087295). E.P. is an inventor (University of Pennsylvania) on a patent for the use of CAR-T therapy in heart disease (US Provisional Patent Application 62/563,323 filed 26 September 2017, WIPO Patent Application PCT/US2018/052605). J.D.R. is an advisor and stockholder in Colorado Research Partners, L.E.A.F. Pharmaceuticals, Bantam Pharmaceuticals, Barer Institute and Rafael Pharmaceuticals; a paid consultant of Pfizer and Third Rock Ventures; a founder, director, and stockholder of Farber Partners, Serien Therapeutics and Sofro Pharmaceuticals; a founder and stockholder in Empress Therapeutics; inventor of patents held by Princeton University; and a director of the Princeton University-PKU Shenzhen collaboration. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.