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Article History

Received: 11 June 2020

Accepted: 22 December 2020

First Online: 18 February 2021

Competing interests

: T.C. reports speaker’s fees from the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer and Bristol Myers Squibb, consulting fees from MedImmune/AstraZeneca and Bristol Myers Squibb, advisory role fees from EMD Serono and Bristol Myers Squibb, and research funding to the MD Anderson Cancer Center from Boehringer Ingelheim, MedImmune/AstraZeneca, EMD Serono and Bristol Myers Squibb. W.N.W.Jr reports consulting or advisory role fees from Clovis Oncology and AstraZeneca, speaker’s fees from Boehringer Ingelheim, honoraria from Roche/Genentech, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck, Bayer, Pfizer and Eli Lilly, and research funding from OSI Pharmaceuticals, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly and Merck. M.C.B.G. has received research funding from Siemens Healthcare. H.T.T. reports research funding from Bayer-AS, Bristol Myers Squibb, Ziopharm and Guardant Health. N.K. reports consulting or advisory role fees from Merck, Bristol Myers Squibb, Abbvie and Roche. A.S.T. reports advisory board/consultant fees from Bristol Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, Genentech, Roche, Novartis, Ariad, EMD Serono, Merck, Seattle Genetics, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Sellas Life Science, Takeda, Epizyme and Huron, and receives research grants from Eli Lilly, Millennium, Polaris, Genentech, Merck, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Ariad, Epizyme, Seattle Genetics, Takeda and EMD Serono. G.B.Jr receives personal fees and research funding from Amgen, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Celgene, Daiichi Sankyo, Genentech, MedImmune, Merck, Roche and Xcovery, research funding from Adaptimmune, Exelixis, GlaxoSmithKline, Immatics, Immunocore, Incyte, Kite pharma, Macrogenics, Torque, AstraZeneca, Tmunity, Regeneron, Beigene, Novartis and Repertoire Immune Medicines, and personal fees from Abbvie, Adicet, Amgen, Araid, Clovis Oncology, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myer Squibb, Celgene, Genentech, Gilead, Merck, Novartis, Roche, Virogin Biotech, John & Johnson/Janssen and Maverick Therapeutics. X.L. receives consultant and advisory fees from Eli Lilly, AstraZeneca and EMD Serono, and research funding from Eli Lilly, Boehringer Ingelheim and Spectrum Pharmaceuticals. J.Z. reports grants from Merck, Johnson and Johnson, and consultant fees, advisory fees or honoraria from Bristol Myers Squibb, AstraZeneca, GenePlus, Innovent, OrigMed and Roche outside the submitted work. M.A. reports research funding to the MD Anderson Cancer Center from Genentech, Nektar therapeutics, Merck, GlaxoSmithKline, Novartis, Jounce therapeutics, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly and Adaptimmune, and receives advisory fees from GlaxoSmithKline and Shattuck labs. B.G. reports research funding to MD Anderson Cancer Center from Pfizer Inc., ISA Pharmaceuticals, MedImmune/AstraZeneca and Cue Bio. L.A.B. receives advisory/consultant fees and research funding from AstraZeneca, AbbVie, GenMab, PharmaMar and Sierra Oncology, advisor/consultant fees from Genentech, Bristol Myers Squibb, Alethia, Merck and Pfizer, as well as research funding from ToleroPharmaceuticals. W.L.H. receives research funding from Johnson & Johnson. J.A.R. reports fees as consultant, scientific advisor, ownership interest, inventor on intellectual property licensed by Genprex and PI on Genprex-sponsored research. H.K. receives funding to the MD Anderson Cancer Center from Johnson and Johnson. C.H. serves as an advisory board member for Briacell. R.R.J. receives consultant role fees from Merck, Karius and Microbiome DX, advisory member role fees from Seres and Kaleido, and patent licensing fees from Seres. P.S. reports consulting, advisory roles and/or stocks/ownership for Achelois, Apricity Health, BioAlta, Codiak BioSciences, Constellation, Dragonfly Therapeutics, Forty-Seven Inc., Hummingbird, ImaginAb, Jounce Therapeutics, Lava Therapeutics, Lytix Biopharma, Marker Therapeutics, Oncolytics, Infinity Pharma, BioNTech, Adaptive Biotechnologies and Polaris, and owns a patent licensed to Jounce Therapeutics. J.P.A. reports consulting, advisory roles and/or stocks/ownership for Achelois, Apricity Health, BioAtla, Codiak BioSciences, Dragonfly Therapeutics, Forty-Seven Inc., Hummingbird, ImaginAb, Jounce Therapeutics, Lava Therapeutics, Lytix Biopharma, Marker Therapeutics, Polaris, BioNTech and Adaptive Biotechnologies, and owns a patent licensed to Jounce Therapeutics. J.A.W. is an inventor on a US patent application (PCT/US17/53.717) submitted by the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center which covers methods to enhance immune checkpoint blockade responses by modulating the microbiome, reports compensation for speaker’s bureau and honoraria from Imedex, Dava Oncology, Omniprex, Illumina, Gilead, PeerView, Physician Education Resource, MedImmune, Exelixis and Bristol Myers Squibb, serves as a consultant/advisory board member for Roche/Genentech, Novartis, AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck, Biothera Pharmaceuticals and Microbiome DX, and receives research support from GlaxoSmithKline, Roche/Genentech, Bristol Myers Squibb and Novartis. I.I.W. reports honoraria from Genentech/Roche, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, AstraZeneca/Medimmune, Pfizer, HTG Molecular, Asuragen, Merck, GlaxoSmithKline, Guardant Health, Platform Health, Daiichi, Merck, Flame, Oncocyte and MSD, and research support from Genentech, Oncoplex, HTG Molecular, DepArray, Merck, Bristol Myers Squibb, Medimmune, Adaptive, Adaptimmune, EMD Serono, Pfizer, Takeda, Amgen, Karus, Johnson & Johnson, Bayer, Iovance, 4D, Novartis and Akoya. S.G.S. reports speaker, travel and lodging expenses—Egyptian Society of Surgical Oncology/Best of SSO Cairo; West Hawaii Cancer Symposium; review panel participant, travel and lodging expenses—Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre; unpaid advisory board participant—Ethicon. D.L.G. reports honoraria for scientific advisory boards from AstraZeneca, Sanofi, Alethia Biotherapeutics and Janssen, and research support from Janssen, Takeda, Ribon Therapeutics and AstraZeneca. J.V.H. reports fees for advisory committees from AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Catalyst, EMD Serono, Foundation Medicine, Hengrui Therapeutics, Genentech, GSK, Guardant Health, Eli Lilly, Merck, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche, Sanofi, Seattle Genetics, Spectrum and Takeda, research support from AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline, Spectrum, and royalties and licensing fees from Spectrum. B.S. reports consulting fees from Bristol Myers Squibb. The remaining authors report no competing interests.