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Article History

Received: 6 January 2024

Accepted: 15 July 2024

First Online: 15 August 2024

Competing interests

: J.J. has a patent licensed by MDSeq, Inc. J.G. is a former employee of Agilent Technologies and a current employee of NeoGenomics. J.H. and K.G. are current employees of Agilent Technologies. M.E.A. has consulted for Janssen Global Services, Bristol Myers Squibb, AstraZeneca, Roche and Biocartis and has participated in speaker’s bureau activities for Biocartis, Invivoscribe, Physiciansʼ Education Resource, PeerView Institute for Medical Education, Clinical Care Options and RMEI Medical Education. N.P. has received honoraria from Boehringer Ingelheim, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Merck, Bristol Myers Squibb, AstraZeneca, Takeda, Pfizer, Roche, Novartis, Ipsen and Bayer and received research funding from Bayer, Pfizer and Roche. S.P.S. holds equity in Canesia Health, Inc. P.R. has received research funding from GRAIL, Illumina, Novartis, Epic Sciences and ArcherDx and served as a consultant for Novartis, Foundation Medicine, AstraZeneca, Epic Sciences, Inivata, Natera and Tempus. J.S.R.-F. is a current employee of AstraZeneca; has served as a consultant for Goldman Sachs, Paige.AI and REPARE Therapeutics; and has served as an advisor for Roche, Genentech, Roche Tissue Diagnostics, Ventana, Novartis, InVicro, GRAIL, Goldman Sachs, Paige.AI and Volition RX. M.L. has received honoraria from Merck, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Blueprint Medicines, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Takeda Pharmaceuticals, Lilly Oncology, LOXO Oncology, Bayer, ADC Therapeutics, Riken Genesis and Paige.AI and research funding from LOXO Oncology, Merus and Helsinn Therapeutics. J.Z. has served as a consultant for Calyx, Sanofi, CSL Behring, Janssen, Sanofi, CSL and Parexel and received research funding from Incyte Corporation and QUercegen and honoraria from Pfizer/Bristol Myers Squibb, Portola and Daiichi. M.F.B. has consulted for PetDx and Eli Lilly and received research funding from GRAIL. B.T.L. has received research funding from Amgen, Genentech, AstraZeneca, Daiichi Sankyo, Eli Lilly, Illumina, GRAIL, Guardant Health, Hengrui Therapeutics, MORE Health and Bolt Biotherapeutics. S.M. has served as a consultant for Janssen Pharmaceuticals; is developing a licensing agreement with Superbio.ai, Inc. for NLP software featured in this paper; is the principal owner of Daboia Consulting, LLC; and has a US patent application for PINES. J.J., B.T.L. and S.M. have applied for a US patent related to the research in this paper. The other authors declare no competing interests.