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First Online: 18 October 2024

Competing interests

: X.L. has previously received consulting fees from Hardian Health and Conceivable Life Sciences, was previously a Health Studies Scientist at Apple and is supported by grant funding from the NHS AI Lab, the Health Foundation and the National Institute for Health Research. M.M. receives salary support from The Hospital Research Foundation Group, grant funding from Canadian Institute for Health Research and additional research support from the Australian Institute for Machine Learning. D.S.W.T. is the patent holder for a retinal disease deep learning system. S.K.W. is supported by the Medical Research Council through a Clinical Research Training Fellowship (MR/T000053/1). P.A.K. has acted as a consultant for Retina Consultants of America, Topcon, Roche, Boehringer-Ingleheim and Bitfount, is an equity owner in Big Picture Medical, has received speaker fees from Zeiss, Novartis, Gyroscope, Boehringer-Ingleheim, Apellis, Roche, Abbvie, Topcon and the Hakim Group, has received travel support from Bayer, Topcon and Roche, has attended advisory boards for Topcon, Bayer, Boehringer-Ingleheim, RetinAI and Novartis, and is supported by a UK Research & Innovation Future Leaders Fellowship (MR/T019050/1) and The Rubin Foundation Charitable Trust. E.J.T. is a scientific advisor to Tempus and advisor to Abridge. N.L. is supported by the Duke–NUS Signature Research Program funded by the Ministry of Health, Singapore; any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not reflect the views of the Ministry of Health, Singapore.