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Article History

Received: 15 May 2024

Accepted: 28 February 2025

First Online: 29 April 2025

Competing interests

: L.K. receives research support from the DFG, the Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research (IZKF) Münster, the National MS Society, Biogen, Novartis and Merck Serono. She received compensation for serving on scientific advisory boards and speaker honoraria from Alexion, Amgen, Argenx, Bayer, Biogen, Bristol Myers Squibb, Grifols, Hexal, Horizon, Janssen, Merck Serono, Novartis, Roche, Sandoz, Sanofi, Santhera, Teva and Viatris. J.S. receives research support from Roche, Siemens Healthineers, Hansa Biopharma, Stichting MS research, Stichting klimmen tegen MS (MOVES inspiration grant), Nationaal MS fonds and the Erasmus Foundation, and received speaker honoraria or consultancy fees from Biogen, Merck, Novartis, Roche and Sanofi. He serves on the steering committee of the International Progressive MS Alliance, the scientific advisory board of Stichting MS research and several committees of the Dutch Society for Neurology. J.L. received speaker honoraria from Merck and Sanofi. H.W. receives research support from the DFG, the Deutsche Myasthenie Gesellschaft, the European Union, Alexion, Amicus Therapeutics, Argenx, Biogen, CSL Behring, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Genzyme, Merck KGaA, Novartis, Roche and UCB Biopharma, as well as speaker honoraria or consultancy fees from Alexion, Argenx, Argobio, AOCN, AstraZeneca, BGP Products Operations, Biogen, Bristol Myers Squibb, CEMCAT, Dianthus, EMD Serono, EPG Health/Medthority, Fondazione Cariplo, Genzyme, Idorsia, Immunic, Immunovant, INmune Bio Syneos Health, Kohlhammer, LTS, Lundbeck, Merck, MS at the Limits, Muna Therapeutics, Myrobalan Therapeutics, Neurodiem, NMSS, Novartis, Ology, PSL Group, Red Nucleus, Roche, Samsung, Sangamo, Sanofi, Springer, StreamedUp, the Swiss MS Society, Teladochealth, Toleranzia, Teva, UCB, Uvet, Viatris and WebMD global. He is a member of the scientific advisory boards of Alexion, Argenx, Biocryst, Bristol Myers Squibb, Cellerys, Galapagos, Janssen, Merck, Novartis, Sandoz-Hexal and uniQure biopharma. L.A. receives grants from the Research Council of Finland, the Aatos Erkko Foundation, the US National MS Society, Merck Serono and Sanofi. She has received speaker and advisory honoraria from Sanofi, Biogen, Novartis, Kiniksa, Continuum Therapeutics and Merck. I.H. has received compensation for serving on the scientific advisory board of Muna Therapeutics and serves on a speakers’ panel for Novartis. T.K. receives research funding from the DFG, IZKF Münster, the National MS Society, the German MS Society and Novartis. She has received compensation for serving on the scientific advisory boards of Novartis, Sanofi and Merck, and speaker honoraria from Novartis, Biogen, Sanofi and Roche. The other authors declare no competing interests.