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Article History

Received: 6 March 2025

Accepted: 2 April 2025

First Online: 29 April 2025

Competing interests

: B.C.C. reports research funding from GIInovation, AstraZeneca, Champions Oncology, CJ Bioscience, Cyrus, Janssen, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Dong-A ST, Yuhan, ImmuneOncia, Therapex, JINTSbio and Vertical Bio AG; royalties from Champions Oncology, Crown Bioscience, Imagen and PearlRiver Bio GmbH; consulting fees from BeiGene, Novartis, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Roche, Bristol Myers Squibb, CJ, Cyrus Therapeutics, Ono, Yuhan, Pfizer, Eli Lilly, Janssen, Takeda, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Gilead, Amgen, Daiichi Sankyo, Regeneron, Sanofi, AnHeart Therapeutics, Seagen, Harpoon Therapeutics, GlaxoSmithKline and ArriVent; honoraria as an invited speaker from ASCO, AstraZeneca, Guardant, Roche, ESMO, IASLC, Korean Cancer Association, Korean Society of Medical Oncology, Korean Society of Thyroid-Head and Neck Surgery, Korean Cancer Study Group, Novartis, Merck Sharp & Dohme, the Chinese Thoracic Oncology Society, Pfizer and ZaiLab; participation on scientific advisory boards for KANAPH Therapeutic Inc., Bridgebio Therapeutics, Cyrus Therapeutics, Guardant Health, J INTS Bio and Therapex Co. Ltd; stock ownership with TheraCanVac Inc., Gencurix Inc., Bridgebio Therapeutics, KANPH Therapeutic Inc., Cyrus Therapeutics, Interpark Bio Convergence Corp. and J INTS Bio; and other financial or nonfinancial interests with Yonsei University Health System (employment), DAAN Biotherapeutics (founder) and J INTS BIO (member of the board of directors). S.L. reports research funding from AstraZeneca, Hutchison, Bristol Myers Squibb, Hengrui Therapeutics, BeiGene, Roche and Hansoh; consulting fees from AstraZeneca, Hutchison, Simcere, ZaiLab and Yuhan Corporation; honoraria from AstraZeneca, Roche, Hansoh and Hengrui Therapeutics; participation on advisory boards for AstraZeneca, Yuhan Corporation, Inventis Bio, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Simcere Zaiming Pharmaceutical, Shanghai Fosun Pharmaceutical and Phase Therapeutics; and a leadership role with Innovent Biologics. Z.L. reports honoraria from AstraZeneca, Roche, Hansoh and Pfizer. G.R. reports research funding from Bristol Myers Squibb, Roche/Genentech, AstraZeneca, Merck, Takeda, BeiGene, Pfizer, CBT Pharmaceuticals, Corvus Pharmaceuticals, Novotech, Shanghai Fosun Pharmaceutical Development, Shanghai Henlius Biotech, Five Prime Therapeutics, Suzhou Alphamab, Boehringer Ingelheim, Adagene Inc., Bio-Thera Solutions, ChemoCentryx, Curon Biopharmaceutical, D3 Bio, Inventis Bio, Senz Oncology, Genfleet Therapeutics, GeneQuantum Healthcare, Keythera Pharmaceuticals, LaNova Australia, Medicenna Therapeutics, Minghui Pharmaceutical, Neoleukin Therapeutics, PharmAbcine Australia, RemeGen, Seagen, Surface Oncology, Eucure Biopharma, Janssen Oncology, ImmuGen, Imugene, Therapim, Zentalis and Agenus. Jun Zhang reports participation on advisory boards for Astellas and Shanghai HengRui. H.H.L. reports research funding from MSD, MundiPharma and Novartis; consulting fees from Boehringer Ingelheim, Celgene, Eli Lilly, Illumina, Novartis, Merck Serono, Takeda and George Clinical; honoraria from AbbVie, Bayer, Eisai, Eli Lilly, Guardant Health and Novartis; and support for meeting attendance and/or travel from Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Novartis and Pfizer. C.C., J.W., Y.S., Z.F., Q.C., H.W., Jing Zhang and Z.J.C. report employment and stock or stock options with D3 Bio. M.L.J. reports funding to the institution from D3 Bio for the current work; grants to the institution from AbbVie, Adaptimmune, Amgen, Arcus Biosciences, Array BioPharma, ArriVent BioPharma, Artios Pharma, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BeiGene, BerGenBio, BioAtla, Black Diamond, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Calithera Biosciences, Carisma Therapeutics, City of Hope National Medical Center, Conjupro Biotherapeutics, Corvus Pharmaceuticals, Curis, CytomX, Daiichi Sankyo, Dracen Pharmaceuticals, Lilly, Elicio Therapeutics, EMD Serono, EQRx, Erasca, Exelixis, Fate Therapeutics, Genentech/Roche, Genmab, Genocea Biosciences, GlaxoSmithKline, Gritstone Oncology, Harpoon, Helsinn Healthcare SA, Hengrui Therapeutics, Hutchinson MediPharma, IDEAYA Biosciences, IGM Biosciences, Immuneering Corporation, Immunitas Therapeutics, Immunocore, Impact Therapeutics, Incyte, Janssen, Kartos Therapeutics, LockBody Therapeutics, Loxo Oncology, Memorial Sloan Kettering, Merck, Merus, Mirati Therapeutics, Mythic Therapeutics, NeoImmune Tech, Neovia Oncology, NextPoint Therapeutics, Novartis, Numab Therapeutics, Nuvalent, OncoC4, Palleon Pharmaceuticals, Pfizer, PMV Pharmaceuticals, Rain Therapeutics, RasCal Therapeutics, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Relay Therapeutics, Revolution Medicines, Ribon Therapeutics, Rubius Therapeutics, Sanofi, Seven and Eight Biopharmaceuticals/Birdie Pharmaceuticals, Shattuck Laboratories, Silicon Therapeutics, Systimmune, Taiho Oncology, Takeda Pharmaceuticals, TCR2 Therapeutics, Tempest Therapeutics, TheRas, Tizona Therapeutics, TMUNITY Therapeutics, Turning Point Therapeutics, Vividion, Vyriad and Y-mAbs Therapeutics; consulting fees from AbbVie, Alentis Therapeutics, Amgen, Arcus Biosciences, AstraZeneca, Biohaven Pharmaceuticals, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, D3 Bio Limited, Daiichi Sankyo, Fate Therapeutics, Genentech/Roche, Gilead Sciences, GlaxoSmithKline, Gritstone Oncology, Hookipa Biotech, Immunocore, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Lilly, Merck, Mirati Therapeutics, ModeX Therapeutics, Normunity, Novartis, Novocure, Pfizer, Regneron Pharmaceuticals, Revolution Medicines, Sanofi-Aventis, SeaGen, Synthekine, Takeda Pharmaceuticals and Zai Laboratory. T.M. reports research funding from AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, G1 Therapeutics, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Merck Serono, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche, SFJ, Takeda and XCovery; consulting fees from AbbVie, ACEA Pharma, Adagen, Alentis Therapeutics, Alpha Biopharma, Amgen, Amoy Diagnostics Co, AnHeart Therapeutics, AVEO Pharmaceuticals, Bayer Healthcare Pharmaceuticals, BeiGene, BerGenBio ASA, Berry Oncology, Boehringer Ingelheim, Blueprint Medicines Corporation, BridgeBio, Bristol Myers Squibb, Bowtie Life Insurance Company Limited, Bridge Biotherapeutics Inc., Covidien LP, C4 Therapeutics Inc., Cirina, CStone Pharmaceuticals, Curio Science, D3 Bio, Da Volterra, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai, Elevation Oncology, Erasca, F. Hoffmann–La Roche/Genentech, Fishawack Facilitate, G1 Therapeutics, geneDecode, Gilead Sciences, GLG’s Healthcare, Gritstone Oncology, Guardant Health, HengRui Therapeutics, HiberCell, HutchMed, Ignyta, Illumina, Imagene AI, Incyte Corporation, Inivata, InxMed, IQVIA, Janssen, Lakeshore Biotech, Lilly, Lunit USA, Loxo Oncology, Lucence Health, Medscape/WebMD, Medtronic, Merck Serono, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Mirati Therapeutics, MiRXES, MoreHealth, Novartis, Novocure GmbH, Ningbo NewBay Technology Development, Omega Therapeutics, OrigiMed, OSE Immunotherapeutics, PeerVoice, Phanes Therapeutics, Pfizer, PrIME Oncology, Prenetics Global, Puma Biotechnology, Qiming Development (HK), Regen Medtech Holdings, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Roche Pharmaceuticals/Diagnostics/Foundation One, Sanofi-Aventis, Schrödinger, Seagen International GmbH, SFJ Pharmaceutical, Simcere of America, Synergy Research, Summit Therapeutics, Takeda Pharmaceuticals HK, Tigermed, Vertex Pharmaceuticals, Virtus Medical Group, Xencor and Yuhan Corporation; honoraria from ACEA Pharma, Alpha Biopharma, Amgen, Amoy Diagnostics, AstraZeneca, BeiGene, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Daiichi Sankyo, Daz Group, Fishawack Facilitate, InMed Medical Communication, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Jiahui Holdings, LiangYiHui Healthcare, Lilly, Lucence Health, MD Health Brazil, Medscape, Merck Pharmaceuticals HK, Merck Sharp & Dohme, MiRXES, Novartis, OrigiMed, P. Permanyer SL, PeerVoice, Physicians’ Education Resource, Pfizer, PrIME Oncology, Research to Practice, Roche Pharmaceuticals/Diagnostics/Foundation One, Sanofi-Aventis, Shanghai BeBirds Translation & Consulting, Taiho Pharmaceutical, Takeda Oncology, and Touch Independent Medical Education; support for meeting attendance and/or travel from Novartis, Roche, Pfizer, AstraZeneca, Daiichi Sankyo, Boehringer Ingelheim, MiRXES, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck Sharp & Dohme, AbbVie, ZaiLab and Liangyihui; participation in advisory boards for AbbVie, ACEA Pharma, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Alentis Therapeutics AG, BerGenBio ASA, Berry Oncology, Blueprint Medicines Corporation, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bowtie Life Insurance, Bristol Myers Squibb, C4 Therapeutics, Covidien LP, CStone Pharmaceuticals, Curio Science, D3 Bio, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai, Erasca, Fishawack Facilitate, G1 Therapeutics, Gilead Sciences, Gritstone Oncology, Guardant Health, geneDecode (uncompensated), Hengrui Therapeutics, HutchMed, Ignyta, Incyte Corporation, Imagene AI, Inivata, IQVIA, Janssen, Lakeshore Biotech, Lilly, Loxo Oncology, Lunit, Merck Serono, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Mirati Therapeutics, MiRXES Group, Novartis, OrigiMed, Phanes Therapeutics, Pfizer, Prenetics Global, Puma Biotechnology, Roche/Genentech, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Sanofi-Aventis R&D, SFJ Pharmaceutical, Simcere of America, Simcere Zaiming, Takeda, Vertex Pharmaceuticals, Virtus Medical Group, Xencor and Yuhan Corporation; leadership role for AstraZeneca, HutchMed, Aurora, Epoch Biosciences and Insighta; stock or stock options with AstraZeneca, Aurora Tele-Oncology, Biolidics, HutchMed, Prenetics Global, D3 Bio, Lunit, Bowtie Life Insurance, Lakeshore Biotech, Loxo Oncology, Virtus Medical Group, Yinson Capital, Phanes Therapeutics, Insighta and Alentis Therapeutics AG. The other authors declare no competing interests.