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Article History

Received: 15 April 2024

Accepted: 4 April 2025

First Online: 5 June 2025

Competing interests

: J.E.H., J.X., V.C., S.D., A.K.-J., D.S., E.K., A.B., C.S., M.I., W.O., R.M.L., M.C., G.M., Y.S., K.C., W.R., M.S.E. and I.O. report no competing interests. K.R.M., R.F., L.M. and T.K. are inventors on a patent application filed by NYU covering the findings described in this manuscript. Y.L., H.T., S.D. and D.T. are employed by Bristol Myers Squibb. A.C.P. reports consultancy roles with BMS, Merck, Replimune and Regeneron and participation in a speaker’s bureau for BMS. J.B.A.G.H. reports advisory roles for AZ, Achilles Therapeutics, BioNTech, CureVac, Immunocore, Iovance Biotherapeutics, Instil Bio, MSD, Molecular Partners, Neogene Therapeutics, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi, T-Knife and Third Rock Ventures; grant support from Amgen, Asher Bio, BioNTech, BMS, Novartis and Sastra Cell Therapy; and stock options in Neogene Therapeutics and Sastra Cell Therapy. T.F.G. reports commercial research grants from Roche-Genentech, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck, Incyte, Seagen, Celldex, Evelo, Bayer, Aduro, Pyxis; is a consultant/advisory board member for Roche-Genentech, Merck, AbbVie, Bayer, Jounce, Aduro, Fog Pharma, Adaptimmune, FivePrime, Pyxis and Allogene and holds ownership interest (including patents) in Jounce, Pyxis, Aduro, Evelo and Bristol Myers Squibb. J.M. reports stock and other ownership in Pfizer and honoraria from Medscape and HMP; consulting fees from Merck, Sanofi/Regeneron, Bristol Myers Squibb, Seagen and Novartis; research support from GV20 Therapeutics, Astra Zeneca, Amgem, Macrogenics, Incyte, Bristol Meyers Squibb, Merck, Novartis, Regeneron, Kinnate Biopharma; and travel awards from Merck and Sharpe Dohme. M.K. serves on the scientific advisory boards of Genentech and Merck and Co. and received research support from Merck Sharp & Dohme, a subsidiary of Merck and Co., Genentech, Biogen, Novartis and the Mark Foundation. F.S.H. reports personal fees and other from Incyte; grants from Bristol Myers Squibb; grants and personal fees from Novartis; personal fees from Merck, Aduro, Amgen, 7 Hills Pharma, Apricity, Bicara, Bioentre, Catalym, Checkpoint Therapeutics, Compass Therapeutics, Genentech, Gossamer, Immunocore, Iovance, Merck, Pieris Pharmaceutical, Surface, Trillium, AstraZeneca, Corner Therapeutics and Zumutor. K.T.F. reports leadership positions at Strata Oncology, Kinnate Biopharma, Scorpion Therapeutics, Clovis Oncology; stock and other ownership interests in Clovis Oncology, Loxo, X4 Pharma, Strata Oncology, PIC Therapeutics, Apricity Health, Oncoceutics, FOGPharma, Tvardi Therapeutics, Checkmate Pharmaceuticals, Kinnate Biopharma, Scorpion Therapeutics, ALX Oncology, xCures, Monopteros Therapeutics, Vibliome Therapeutics, Transcode Therapeutics, Soley Therapeutics, Nextech Invest, Alterome Therapeutics and PreDICTA; consulting or advisory roles for Novartis, Lilly, Oncoceutics, Tvardi Therapeutics, Takeda, Debiopharm Group, OmRx Oncology, Quanta Therapeutics, Immagene and Karkinos Healthcare. I.P. owns stock in Ideaya and has consulted for Nouscom, Iovance, Nektar and Regeneron. O.R. reports that he is an employee and holds stocks at AstraZeneca. M.A.P. reports consulting fees from BMS, Merck, Novartis, Eisai, Pfizer, Chugai, Erasca, Nektar and Lyvgen and institutional support from RGenix, Infinity, BMS, Merck, Novartis, BioAtla and Genentech. R.J.S. has received grants or contracts from Merck (to institution); consulting fees from BMS, Novartis, Merck, Pfizer, Replimune and Marengo; participated on a data safety monitoring board or advisory board of Yale University and Duke University. J.J.L. reports grants or contracts from AbbVie, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Corvus, Day One, EMD Serono, F-star, Genmab, Ikena, Immatics, Incyte, Kadmon, KAHR, MacroGenics, Merck, Moderna, Nektar, Next Cure, Numab, Palleon, Pfizer, Replimune, Rubius, Servier, Scholar Rock, Synlogic, Takeda, Trishula, Tizona and Xencor; consulting fees from 7 Hills Pharma, Bright Peak, Exo, F-star, Inzen, RefleXion, Xilio, Actym, Alphamab Oncology, Arch Oncology, Duke Street Bio, Kanaph, Mavu, NeoTx, Onc.AI, OncoNano, Pyxis, Saros, Stipe, Tempest, AbbVie, Alnylam, Atomwise, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Castle, Checkmate, Codiak, Crown, Cugene, Curadev, Day One, Eisai, EMD Serono, Endeavor, Flame, G1 Therapeutics, Genentech, Gilead, Glenmark, HotSpot, Kadmon, KSQ, Janssen, Ikena, Inzen, Immatics, Immunocore, Incyte, Instil, IO Biotech, MacroGenics, Merck, Mersana, Nektar, Novartis, Partner, Pfizer, Pioneering Medicines, PsiOxus, Regeneron, Ribon, Roivant, Servier, Stingthera, Synlogic and Synthekine; participation on a data safety monitoring board or advisory board with AbbVie, Immutep and Evaxion; leadership or fiduciary role with the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer; stock or stock options with Actym, Alphamab Oncology, Arch Oncology, Duke Street Bio, Kanaph, Mavu, NeoTx, Onc.AI, OncoNano, Pyxis, Saros, STipe and Tempest. P.A.A. has/had a consultant/advisory role for Bristol Myers Squibb, Roche-Genentech, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Novartis, Merck Serono, Pierre-Fabre, AstraZeneca, Sun Pharma, Sanofi, Sandoz, Immunocore, Italfarmaco, Nektar, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Eisai, Regeneron, Daiichi Sankyo, Pfizer, Oncosec, Nouscom, Lunaphore, Seagen, iTeos, Medicenna, Bio-Al Health, ValoTX, Replimmune, Bayer and Erasca. P.A.A. also received research funding from Bristol Myers Squibb, Roche-Genentech, Pfizer and Sanofi and travel support by Pfizer, Bio-Al Health and Replimmune.