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Article History

Received: 22 August 2025

Accepted: 23 September 2025

First Online: 18 October 2025

Competing interests

: Y.Y.J. reports stock and other ownership interests with Inspirna; reports honoraria from Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Daiichi Sankyo, Master Clinician Alliance, Michael J. Hennessy Associates, Merck, Peerview and Research to Practice; reports consulting or advisory role with AbbVie, AmerisourceBergen, Arcus Biosciences, AskGene Pharma, Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, Basilea Pharmaceutical, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Daiichi Sankyo, Geneos, GlaxoSmithKline, Guardant Health, Imedex, Imugene, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Lilly, Lynx Health, Merck, Merck Serono, Mersana, Michael J. Hennessy Associates, Paradigm, Peerview, Pfizer, Phanes Therapeutics, Research to Practice, Rgenix, Seagen, Silverback Therapeutics and Zymeworks; reports research funding (to the institution) from Arcus Biosciences, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Cycle for Survival, Fred’s Team, Genentech/Roche, Lilly, Rgenix, Transcenta and United States Department of Defense; reports travel, accommodations, and expenses from Bristol Myers Squibb Japan and Merck; and reports other relationship with Axis Medical Education, Clinical Care Options and Research to Practice. D.-Y.O. reports consulting or advisory role with Arcus Biosciences, ASLAN Pharmaceuticals, AstraZeneca, Basilea, Bayer, BeiGene, Celgene, Genentech/Roche, Halozyme, IQVIA, Novartis, Merck Serono, Taiho Pharmaceutical, Turning Point Therapeutics, Yuhan and Zymeworks; and reports research funding from Array BioPharma, AstraZeneca, BeiGene, Handok, Lilly, MSD, Novartis and Servier. M.P. reports honoraria from Castle Biosciences; reports consulting or advisory role (paid to the institution) with AstraZeneca, Bayer, CytomX Therapeutics, Daiichi Sankyo, Ipsen, Novartis, Pfizer and Seagen; and reports research funding (to the institution) from 1200 Pharma, Arcus Biosciences, Astellas Pharma, BeiGene, BioNTech, Bristol Myers Squibb, Codiak Biosciences, CytomX Therapeutics, Eisai, Gilead Sciences, Gritstone Bio, HiberCell, Immune-Onc Therapeutics, Leap Therapeutics, OncXerna Therapeutics, Panbela Therapeutics, Revolution Medicines, SQZ Biotechnology, Surface Oncology, Translational Genomics Research Institute, TransThera Sciences (Nanjing) Inc. and ZielBio. Z.A.W. reports consulting or advisory role with Alligator Bioscience, Amgen, Arcus Biosciences, Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BeiGene, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Daiichi Sankyo, Ipsen, Janssen, Jazz, Lilly, Merck, Merck KGaA, Novartis, Pfizer, PureTech, Revolution Medicine, Roche/Genentech and Seagen; reports travel/accommodations/expenses from Amgen, Bayer, Lilly and Merck; and reports research funding from Arcus Biosciences, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck, Novartis, Pfizer and Plexxikon. S.P., S.N., A.D.P., A.T. and E.A.R.S. are employees of Arcus Biosciences, Inc. and may own stock and/or stock options. D.O.K. is an employee of Gilead Sciences, Inc. and owns stock in Gilead Sciences. S.Y.R. reports research funding and grants (to the institution) for conducting clinical trials from ABLBIO, ALX Oncology, AMGEN, Arcus Biosciences, Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, BeiGene, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bold Therapeutics, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai, Ipsen, Leap Therapeutics, Macrogenics, Merck KGaA, Merck Sharp and Dohme, Ono Pharmaceutical, Pfizer, Seagen, Taiho Pharmaceutical, Toray, YH Corp and Zymeworks; reports consulting fees from Indivumed and LG Biochem; reports personal fees/honoraria from Amgen, Astellas, Bristol Myers Squibb/Ono, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai and Merck Sharp and Dohme; and reports participation on data safety monitoring boards or advisory boards for Amgen, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Daiichi Sankyo and Toray.