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Article History

First Online: 7 January 2026

Competing interests

: M.E.R. serves as a consultant for Akero Therapeutics, BMS, Boehringer Ingelheim, Cytodyn, GSK, Intercept Pharmaceuticals, Madrigal Pharmaceuticals, NGM Biopharmaceuticals, Novo Nordisk, 89bio, Eli Lilly, Sagimet Biosciences and Sonic Incytes. A.J.S. has stock options in Rivus, Durect, Inversago, Tiziana, NorthSea Therapeutics; serves as a consultant for Novo Nordisk, Eli Lilly, Merck, Genentech, Regeneron, Amgen, Astra Zeneca, Takeda, Boehringer Ingelhiem, Pliant, Avant Sante, Inventiva, Madrigal Pharmaceuticals, Zydus, Surrozen, Poxel, Hanmi, Daichi Sankyo, Glaxo Smith Kline, Akero Therapeutics, Boston Pharma, Path AI and Histoindex; has received grant support from Gilead, Intercept, Merck, Echosens, E-Scopics, Takeda, Madrigal Pharmaceuticals, Novo Nordisk, Amgen, Eli Lilly, Boehringer Ingelhiem and Hanmi; and has received royalties from Elsevier and UptoDate. R.L. serves as a consultant to Aardvark Therapeutics, Altimmune, Arrowhead Pharmaceuticals, AstraZeneca, Cascade Pharmaceuticals, Eli Lilly, Gilead, Glympse bio, Inipharma, Intercept, Inventiva, Ionis, Janssen Inc., Lipidio, Madrigal Pharmaceuticals, Neurobo, Novo Nordisk, Merck, Pfizer, Sagimet Biosciences, 89bio, Takeda, Terns Pharmaceuticals and Viking Therapeutics; has stock options in Sagimet Biosciences; has received institutional research grants from Arrowhead Pharmaceuticals, Astrazeneca, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, Galectin Therapeutics, Gilead, Intercept, Hanmi, Intercept, Inventiva, Ionis, Janssen, Madrigal Pharmaceuticals, Merck, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer, Sonic Incytes and Terns Pharmaceuticals; is a co-founder of LipoNexus Inc; and receives funding support from NCATS (5UL1TR001442), NIDDK (U01DK061734, U01DK130190, R01DK121378, P30DK120515), NHLBI (P01HL147835), John C Martin Foundation (RP124) and NIAAA (U01AA029019). M.N. has participated in advisory boards or done scientific consulting for D&D Pharmatech, Neuraly, Akero Therapeutics, Altimmune, Aligos Therapeutics, AstraZeneca, BI, Boston Pharma, Curve bioscience, Cytodyn, GSK, Histoindex, Kryia, Eli Lilly, Madrigal Pharmaceuticals, Merck, Novo Nordisk, OPKO, Rivus, Sagimet Biosciences, Terns Pharmaceuticals and Takeda; is a principal investigator for a drug study supported by Allergan, Altimmune, Akero Therapeutics, BI, BMS, Boston Pharma, Conatus, Corcept, Gilead, Galectin, Genfit, GSK, Kowa, Enanta, Madrigal Pharmaceuticals, Eli Lilly, Merck, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Rivus, Shire, Takeda, Terns Pharmaceuticals, Viking Therapeutics and Zydus. is a stockholder with OPKO, Kryia and Akero Therapeutics. Speaking bureau: Madrigal Pharmaceuticals and Novo Nordisk. M.B.B. has received grant support from NIH, CDC/NIOSH, Pfizer, The Kinetix Group, Histoindex and Siemens; and has served as a consultant for The Kinetix Group, Madrigal Pharnaceuticals, Pfizer, Fibronostics, Novo Nordisk, GSK, Boston Pharma, Merck, Boeheringer-Ingelheim, CurveBio and mBIOTA. P.N.N. has received consulting fees from 89bio, Akero Therapeutics, Agios, Aligos Therapeutics, Boehringer Ingelheim, Forth Therapeutics, Inventiva, Madrigal Pharmaceuticals, Novo Nordisk, Sagimet Biosciences and UCB; received honoraria as a speaker from AiCME, Boehringer Ingelheim, Echosens, Eli Lilly, Ipsen and Novo Nordisk; and received support for attending meetings from Boehringer Ingelheim and Novo Nordisk. V.R. has done scientific consulting for Novo Nordisk, Boehringer Ingelheim, Glaxo-Smith-Kline, 89bio, Sagimet Biosciences, Akero Therapeutics, Madrigal Pharmaceuticals, Hanmi; and has received institutional grant support from MSD.