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Article History

Received: 21 March 2025

Accepted: 7 January 2026

First Online: 16 February 2026

Competing interests

: K.B. received a one-time consulting fee from Fujirebio paid to the institution in 2025. G.B. received honoraria from Fujirebio and completed paid consultancies for Parkinson’s Foundation. G.B. received travel/educational grants from Fujirebio and Alzheimer’s Association. A. Lleó has received fees for advisory board meetings from Biogen, Beckman Coulter, Eisai, Fujirebio-Europe, Grifols, Lilly, Novartis, Roche, Otsuka Pharmaceutical, Nutricia, Zambón and Novo Nordisk. A. Lleó has received speaker honoraria from Lilly, Biogen, KRKA, Novo Nordisk, Nutricia and Zambon. A. Lleó is inventor of a patent on markers of synaptopathy in neurodegenerative disease (WO2019175379A1, Licensed to ADx) and on a patent antibody for amyloid precursor, methods and uses thereof (European priority N°EP25382226: priority date 12 Mar 2025). D.A. participated in advisory boards from Fujirebio-Europe, Roche Diagnostics, Grifols S.A. and Lilly, and received speaker honoraria from Fujirebio-Europe, Roche Diagnostics, Nutricia, Krka Farmacéutica S.L., Zambon S.A.U., Neuraxpharm, Alter Medica, Lilly and Esteve Pharmaceuticals S.A. S.E. has received consulting fees from Biogen (paid to institution), Eisai (paid to institution), Icometrix (paid to institution), Janssen (paid to institution), Eli Lilly, Novartis (paid to institution) and Remynd (paid to institution). S.E. holds patent EP3452830B1 for an assay for the diagnosis of a neurological disease (licensed to ADx Neurosciences NV & Euroimmun Medizinische Labordiagnostika AG). S.E. is a member of SMB/SAB for EU-H2020 project RECAGE and of the DSMB of PRImus-AD. A.H.S. received a one-time consulting fee from EISAI/BioArctic paid to the institution in 2025. As of 01 Jul 2024, J.J.M.H. is employed by F. Hoffmann-La Roche. Before 01 Jul 2024, J.J.M.H. received grants from the Dutch Research Council (ZonMW) and Alzheimer Netherlands, performed contract research, or received grants from Merck, ONO Pharmaceuticals, Janssen Prevention Center, Discoveric Bio, Axon Neurosciences, Roche, Genentech, Promis, Denali, FirstBiotherapeutics and Ensol Biosciences. All payments were made to the institution. J.J.M.H. participated in the scientific advisory board of Alzheimer Netherlands and has been editor-in-chief for Acta Neuropathologica Communications. L.G. has participated in advisory boards for, and received writing or speaker honoraria and travel grants from, Almirall, Biogen, Eisai, Euroimmun, Fujirebio, Lilly, Merck, Mylan, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi, Siemens Healthineers and Teva. D.C. has received travel/educational grants from Fujirebio. L.P. served as Member of Advisory Boards for Fujirebio, IBL, Roche and Merck. M.d.C.M. has been an invited speaker at Eisai and Novo Nordisk and has been an invited writer for Springer Healthcare. M.d.C.M. is an associate editor at Alzheimer´s Research & Therapy and scientific advisor for the Michael J Fox Foundation. As of 01 Nov 2025, W.M.v.d.F. is executive director at Alzheimer Nederland, Amersfoort the Netherlands. Before 01 Nov 2025, research programs of W.M.v.d.F. have been funded by ZonMW, NWO, EU-JPND, EU-IHI, Alzheimer Nederland, Hersenstichting CardioVascular Onderzoek Nederland, Health~Holland, Topsector Life Sciences & Health, Stichting Dioraphte, Noaber foundation, Pieter Houbolt Fonds, Gieskes-Strijbis fonds, Stichting Equilibrio, Edwin Bouw fonds, Pasman Stichting, Philips, Biogen MA, Novartis-NL, Life-MI, AVID, Roche BV, Eli Lilly-NL, Fujifilm, Eisai and Combinostics. W.M.v.d.F. is a recipient of ABOARD, which is a public–private partnership receiving funding from ZonMW (73305095007) and Health~Holland, Topsector Life Sciences & Health (PPP-allowance; LSHM20106). Before 01 Nov 2025, W.M.v.d.F. has been an invited speaker at Biogen MA, Danone, Eisai, WebMD Neurology (Medscape), Novo Nordisk, Springer Healthcare and the European Brain Council. W.M.v.d.F. has been consultant to Oxford Health Policy Forum CIC, Roche, Biogen MA, Eisai, Eli Lilly, Owkin France and Nationale Nederlanden Ventures. W.M.v.d.F. has participated in advisory boards of Biogen MA, Roche and Eli Lilly. All funding has been paid to Amsterdam UMC. In 2024–2025, W.M.v.d.F. has been a member of the steering committee of phase 3 EVOKE/EVOKE+ studies (Novo Nordisk). In 2025, W.M.v.d.F. has been a member of the steering committee of a phase 3 trontinemab study (Roche). All funding has been paid to Amsterdam UMC. W.M.v.d.F. was associate editor of Alzheimer, Research & Therapy in 2020/2021. W.M.v.d.F. was associate editor at Brain 2021–2025. W.M.v.d.F. is chair of the Scientific Leadership Group of InRAD. W.M.v.d.F. is a member of the Supervisory Board (Raad van Toezicht) at Trimbos Instituut. W.D.J.v.d.B. was financially supported by grants from the Dutch Research council (ZonMW 70-73305-98-106; 70-73305-98-102), Alzheimer association (AARF-18-566459), The Michael J. Fox foundation (MJFF-022468; MJFF027187), Parkinson Association (2020-G01), Stichting Woelse Waard (ParKCODE; Nederlands Parkinson Cohort), Horizon Europe (NEUROCOV) and Parkinson Foundation (PF-TRAIL-144386). W.D.J.v.d.B. co-leads ‘ProPARK’, a public–private partnership receiving funding from ZonMW (40-46000-98-101), Hersenstichting, Parkinson Vereniging, PHARMO Institute NV, Stichting Woelse Waard, Stichting Alkemade-Keuls fonds, CHDR, ABBVIE, Hoffman-La Roche and OccamzRazor. W.D.J.v.d.B. received funding for a public–private partnership ‘CONCERT’ and ‘ADAPT-PD’ from Health~Holland, Topsector Life Sciences & Health in collaboration with Roche and Genentech. W.D.J.v.d.B. performed contract research for Roche Tissue Diagnostics, Discoveric Bio, AC Immune and Gain Therapeutics. All funding has been paid to Amsterdam UMC. W.D.J.v.d.B. is a member of the scientific advisory board of Gain Therapeutics and Alzheimer Nederland. W.D.J.v.d.B. is the president of the Dutch association for Parkinson Scientists and member of the board of the Parkinsonalliance Netherlands. As of 01 Nov 2025, E.A.J.W. is a contractor for Roche Diagnostics International. C.E.T. has research contracts with Acumen, ADx Neurosciences, AC Immune, Alamar, Aribio, Axon Neurosciences, Beckman Coulter, BioConnect, Bioorchestra, Brainstorm Therapeutics, C2N diagnostics, Celgene, Cognition Therapeutics, EIP Pharma, Eisai, Eli Lilly, Fujirebio, Instant Nano Biosensors, Merck, Muna, Nitrase Therapeutics, Novo Nordisk, Olink, PeopleBio, Quanterix, Roche, Sysmex, Toyama, Vaccinex and Vivoryon. C.E.T. is editor-in-chief of Alzheimer Research and Therapy, serves on the editorial boards of Molecular Neurodegeneration, Alzheimer’s & Dementia, Neurology: Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation, and MedidactNeurologie/Springer, and is a member of the committee to define guidelines for cognitive disturbances and a committee for acute neurology in the Netherlands. C.E.T. has contracts with Aribio, Biogen, Beckman Coulter, Cognition Therapeutics, Danaher, Eisai, Eli Lilly, Janssen, Merck, Neurogen Biomarking, Nordic Biosciences, Novo Nordisk, Novartis, Olink, Quanterix, Roche, Sanofi and Veravas. The other authors declare no competing interests.