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Article History

Received: 13 December 2025

Accepted: 29 January 2026

First Online: 6 February 2026

Competing interests

: V.Y.R. has served as a consultant to and received equity from Farapulse (now divested) and receives grant support from and serves as a consultant to Boston Scientific. Unrelated to this paper, he has served as a consultant for and has equity in Ablacon, Acutus Medical, Affera-Medtronic, Anumana, Apama Medical-Boston Scientific, APN Health, Append Medical, Aquaheart, Atacor, Autonomix, Axon Therapies, Backbeat, BioSig, CardiaCare, Cardiofocus, CardioNXT/AFTx, Circa Scientific, CoRISMA, Corvia Medical, Dinova-Hangzhou DiNovA EP Technology, East End Medical, EPD-Philips, EP Frontiers, Field Medical, Focused Therapeutics, HRT, Intershunt, Javelin, Kardium, Laminar Medical, LuxMed, Medlumics, Neutrace, Nuvera-Biosense Webster, Oracle Health, Pulse Biosciences, Restore Medical, Sirona Medical, SoundCath and Valcare. Unrelated to this work, he has served as a consultant for Abbott, Adagio Medical, AtriAN, Biosense-Webster, BioTel Heart, Biotronik, Cairdac, Cardionomic, CoreMap, Fire1, Gore & Associates, Impulse Dynamics, Medtronic, Novartis, Novo Nordisk and Philips. Unrelated to this work, he has equity in Atraverse, DRS Vascular, Manual Surgical Sciences, Newpace, Nyra Medical, Surecor and Vizaramed. E.P.G. has served as a consultant to Boston Scientific, Biosense Webster and Adagio Medical; received lecture honoraria from Boston Scientific, Medtronic, Biosense Webster, Adagio Medical and Abbott; and received research grants from Abbott, Biosense Webster, Boston Scientific and Adagio Medical. S.E.M. has served as a consultant to Biosense Webster and Medtronic; received lecture honoraria from Medtronic, Biosense Webster and Abbott; and received research grants from Medtronic. C.P. has served as a consultant for Boston Scientific. K.A.E. has received honoraria and served as a consultant to Medtronic, Boston Scientific and Abbott. A.N. has served as a consultant for Abbott, Biotronik, Biosense Webster, Boston Scientific, Field Medical, iRhythm, Medtronic and Pulse Biosciences. J.W. has previously served on an advisory board for HeartcoR Solutions, currently consults for Heartbeam, Inc. and receives research support from Anumana, all unrelated to this work. H.C. has served as a consultant and/or has received honoraria from Boston Scientific and Abbott. S.K.G. has served as a consultant for Boston Scientific, Abbott and Cordis. C.E.W. has served as an unpaid consultant to Boston Scientific, Abbott and Atricure; given unpaid lectures for Abbott and Atricure; and has equity in SoloPace and Pacenet. M.D. has served as a consultant for Boston Scientific. F.A.C. has served as a consultant to and performed research activities for Boston Scientific. D.B.D. has served as a consultant to Boston Scientific. E.R., M.D.M. and B.S. are employees and shareholders of Boston Scientific. M.M. has served as a consultant for Boston Scientific, Medtronic, Johnson & Johnson and Abbott and has equity and/or stock options in NewPace Ltd. and EPD Solutions. The other authors declare no competing interests.