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Authors
Luo, Luyang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7485-4151
Kim, Sung Eun https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1954-9875
Zhang, Xiaoman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7696-9366
Kernbach, Julius M.
Kenia, Roshan
Acosta, Julian N.
Nathanson, Larry A. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2297-1495
Haimovich, Adrian D.
Rodman, Adam
Goh, Ethan https://orcid.org/0009-0001-7491-4257
Chen, Jonathan H. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4387-8740
Shah, Nigam H. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9385-7158
Kim, David A. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0151-5121
Zou, James https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8880-4764
Mahmood, Faisal https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7587-1562
Kather, Jakob Nikolas https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3730-5348
Lungren, Matthew
Natarajan, Vivek https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7849-2074
Topol, Eric J. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1478-4729
Rajpurkar, Pranav https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8030-3727
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Article History
Received: 6 August 2025
Accepted: 2 February 2026
First Online: 12 March 2026
Competing interests
: J.H.C. is a cofounder of Reaction Explorer, which develops and licenses organic chemistry education software, and has received paid medical expert witness fees from Elite Experts and a paid one-time honoraria or travel expenses for invited presentations by insitro, General Reinsurance Corporation, AASCIF and other industry conferences, academic institutions and health systems. A.R. is a visiting researcher at Google DeepMind. D.A.K. is a cofounder and equity holder in Capacity Health, an AI clinical decision support company focused on emergency medicine. Capacity Health had no role in the conception, development, implementation, analysis or interpretation of the CES described in this paper, and did not provide funding, data or other support for this work. J.M.K. declares ongoing consulting services for AstraZeneca and Bioptimus. Furthermore, J.M.K. holds shares in StratifAI, Synagen and Spira Labs, has received an institutional research grant from GSK and AstraZeneca, as well as honoraria from AstraZeneca, Bayer, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai, Janssen, Merck, MSD, BMS, Roche, Pfizer and Fresenius. V.N. is an employee of Alphabet Inc.
