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Article History

Received: 31 July 2025

Accepted: 11 February 2026

First Online: 30 March 2026

Competing interests

: Z.A.W. has served as a consultant for AbbVie, Alligator, Amgen, Arcus Biosciences, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BeOne, Bristol Myers Squibb, Daiichi-Sankyo, Ipsen, Jannsen, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Lilly, Merck, Merck KGaA, Novartis, Phanes, Pfizer and Revolution Medicines; received institutional research funding from Arcus Biosciences, Merck, Novartis and Plexxikon; and has been reimbursed for travel, accommodations or other expenses by Amgen, Lilly and Merck. G.A.M. reports consulting or advisory roles with Cend Therapeutics, EnGeneic, Exelixis, Ipsen and Roche/Genentech; reports travel/accommodation/expenses from Celgene, Exelixis and Roche/Genentech; reports honoraria from Celgene, Cend Therapeutics, Exelixis and Roche/Genentech; and reports research funding from Arcus Biosciences, BioLineRx, Merck, Plexxikon, Regeneron and Roche/Genentech. N.B. reports consulting or advisory roles with Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Incyte, Pfizer and Taiho. S.V.U. reports consulting or advisory roles with AstraZeneca, Eisai, IgM Biosciences and reports research funding from AbbVie, Adlai Nortye, ArQule, Astex Pharmaceuticals, AstraZeneca, Atreca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Celgene, CicloMed, Erasca, Evelo Biosciences, Exelixis, G1 Therapeutics, GlaxoSmithKline, IgM Biosciences, Incyte, KLUS Pharma, MacroGenics, Merck, Mersana, NGM Biopharmaceuticals, OncoMed, Pfizer, Pionyr, Regeneron, Revolution Medicines, Synermore Biologics, Takeda, Tarveda Therapeutics, Tempest Therapeutics, TESARO and Vigeo Therapeutics. S.P. reports consulting or advisory roles with AskGene Pharma, Boehringer Ingelheim, Ipsen, Janssen, Novartis and Zymeworks and reports research funding from 4D Pharma, AMAL Therapeutics, Arcus Biosciences, Astellas Pharma, BioNTech, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Elicio Therapeutics, Immuneering, ImmunoMet, Ipsen, Janssen, Lilly, Mirati Therapeutics, NGM Biopharmaceuticals, Novartis, Pfizer, Purple Biotech, Rgenix, Xencor and Zymeworks. D.R.S. reports research funding (paid to the institution) from AbbVie, Agios, Amgen, AnHeart Therapeutics, Apollomics, Arcus Biosciences, Arrys Therapeutics, Ascendis Pharma, Asher Biotherapeutics, Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BeiGene, BioNTech RNA Pharmaceuticals, Blueprint Medicine, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Celgene, Chugai, Cyteir Therapeutics, Daiichi-Sankyo, Denovo Biopharma, Eisai, Elevation Oncology, Ellipses Pharma, EMD Serono, Endeavor, Erasca, Faeth Therapeutics, Foundation Bio, Fujifilm Pharmaceuticals, G1 Therapeutics, Roche/Genentech, Gilead Sciences, GlaxoSmithKline, GRAIL, Hutchison MediPharma, Incyte, Ipsen, Janssen, Janux Therapeutics, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Kronos Bio, Lilly, Loxo Oncology, Lyell Immunopharma, MacroGenics, MedImmune, Merck, Millennium Pharmaceuticals, Moderna, Molecular Template, Monte Rosa Therapeutics, Nektar, Novartis, Novocure, Oncologie, Peloton Therapeutics, Phanes Therapeutics, PTC Therapeutics, PureTech Health, Razor Genomics, Repare Therapeutics, Rgenix, SeaGen, Shenzhen Chipscreen Biosciences, Strata Oncology, Stemline Therapeutics, Synthekine, Taiho, Takeda Pharmaceuticals, Tango Therapeutics, Tarveda, Tizona Therapeutics, Verastem and Zai Laboratory and reports consulting or advisory roles (paid to the institution) with AbbVie, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Circle Pharma, Daiichi Sankyo, GlaxoSmithKline, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Lyell, MedImmune, ModeX Therapeutics, Novartis, Novocure and Roche/Genentech. N.V.U. reports consulting or advisory roles with Arcus Biosciences, Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, BeiGene, BostonGene, Bristol Myers Squibb Foundation, Bristol Myers Squibb/Roche, Eisai/MSD, Elevation Oncology, Gilead Sciences, Ipsen, Merck and Pfizer; reports stock and other ownership interests with Exact Sciences and Natera; and reports research funding from Arcus Biosciences, EMD Serono, Gilead Sciences and Ipsen. P.E.O. reports consulting or advisory roles with Amal Therapeutics, Aravive, AstraZeneca, Merck, QED Therapeutics and Rubius Therapeutics; reports speakers bureau with AstraZeneca; reports travel/accommodations/expenses from Merck; reports expert testimony for Ipsen; and reports research funding from Amal Therapeutics, Arcus Biosciences, Cornerstone Pharmaceuticals, Merck, Novartis, Roche/Genentech and Zai Laboratory. A.S. reports research grants to the institution from Actuate Therapeutics, Arcus Biosciences, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Clovis, Exelixis, Incyte Corporation, Daiichi-Sankyo, Dragonfly Therapeutics, Five Prime Therapeutics, Amgen, Innovent Biologics, KAHR Medical, Merck and Oxford Biotherapeutics and reports advisory board/consulting fees from Amgen, Arcus Biosciences, AstraZeneca, Autem Therapeutics, Bristol Myers Squibb, Daiichi-Sankyo, Exelixis, KAHR Medical, Merck, Pfizer, Xilio Therapeutics and Taiho. B.B. was an employee of Arcus Biosciences when this study was conducted and may own Arcus Biosciences stock and/or stock options. J.Y.K., N.W., B.W., S.S., K.M., J.R.S., D.M.D., M.J.W., W.W., A.K., S.C. and O.K. are employees of Arcus Biosciences and may own stock and/or stock options. L.G.E. is an employee of Medidata Solutions Inc., a Dassault Systèmes company, and may own stock and/or stock options. E.M.O. has received institutional research funding from Agenus, Amgen, Arcus Biosciences, AstraZeneca, BioNTech, Break Through Cancer, Digestive Care, Elicio, Genentech/Roche, the National Institutes of Health/National Cancer Institute (NIH/NCI), the Parker Institute and Revolution Medicines; served (uncompensated) as a consultant or on a data safety monitoring board for Ability Pharma, Agenus, Alligator Bioscience, Amgen, Arcus Biosciences, Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, BioNTech, Bristol Myers Squibb, Ikena, Ispen, Merck, Moma Therapeutics, Novartis, Regeneron, Revolution Medicines and Tango; served (compensated) as a consultant or on a data safety monitoring board for Leap Therapeutics; received travel funding from Arcus Biosciences and BioNTech; and declares other potential competing interests including a spouse (AbbVie and AstraZeneca) and association with the American Association of Cancer Research, the American Society of Clinical Oncology, Imedex, Research To Practice, Stand Up To Cancer and the NIH/NCI. She has received grant funding from the Cancer Center Support Grant/Core (grant P30 CA008748) and the NCI/NIH (P50 CA257881-01A1).