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Article History

Received: 19 December 2025

Accepted: 26 February 2026

First Online: 30 March 2026

Competing interests

: S.D.S. has received research grants from Alexion, Alnylam, Applied Therapeutics, AstraZeneca, Bellerophon, Bayer, BMS, Boston Scientific, Cytokinetics, Edgewise, Bridgebio, Gossamer, GSK, Ionis, Intellia, Lilly, NIH/NHLBI, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Respicardia, Sanofi Pasteur, Tenaya, Theracos and US2.AI and has consulted for Abbott, Action, Akros, Alexion, Alnylam, Amgen, Arena, Askbio, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BMS, Bridgebio, Cardior, Cardurion, Corvia, Cytokinetics, Intellia, GSK, Lilly, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Roche, Theracos, Quantum Genomics, Tenaya, Sanofi Pasteur, Dinaqor, Tremeau, CellProThera, Moderna, American Regent, Sarepta, Lexicon, Anacardio, Akros, Valo, Synhale and Recordati. J.J.V.M. reports payments to Glasgow University for clinical trials and other research projects from the British Heart Foundation, National Institute for Health–National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH–NHLBI), Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Cardurion, Cytokinetics, Novartis and Roche. He reports personal consultancy fees from Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, AnaCardio, AstraZeneca, Cardurion, Cytokinetics, Novartis, River BioMedics, Biohaven Pharmaceuticals, Protherics Medicine Developments Ltd., DalCor Pharmaceuticals, Curie Bio Operations LLC, Adium Pharmaceuticals, Kirkland and Ellis Int. Ltd., Tangram Therapeutics, Alphasights Ltd., APTA Therapeutics, Zoll Pharmaceuticals, Eli Lilly, and Regeneron. He reports personal lecture fees from Alkem Metabolics, AstraZeneca, Canadian Medical and Surgical Knowledge, Centrix Healthcare, Emcure Pharmaceuticals, Eris Lifesciences, Hikma Pharmaceuticals, Imagica Health, Intas Pharmaceuticals, J.B. Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals, Lupin Pharmaceuticals, Medscape/Heart.Org., ProAdWise Communications, Radcliffe Cardiology, Sun Pharmaceuticals, Translational Medicine Academy, MCI India, Hilton Pharmaceuticals, IMEDIC Pharmaceuticals Micro Labs Ltd., At the Limits Ltd., ARMGO Pharmaceuticals, MSN Lab Ltd., and Omicuris Pvt Ltd. He is on the data safety monitoring board for WCG Clinical Services. He is director of Global Clinical Trial Partners Ltd. (which provides clinical trial services such as endpoint committees and educational programmes). J.L.J. has received research grants from Abbott Diagnostics, Applied Therapeutics, AstraZeneca, BridgeBio Pharma, BMS and Novartis; has acted as a consultant, advisor or speaker for Abbott Diagnostics, Beckman-Coulter, CeleCor, Jana Care, Janssen, Novartis, Prevencio, Quidel and Roche Diagnostics; has served on clinical endpoint committees/data safety monitoring boards for Abbott, AbbVie, Amgen, CVRx, Medtronic, Pfizer and Roche Diagnostics; and has equity in Fibrosys, Imbria Pharma, Jana Care and Prevencio. C.S.P.L. has received research grants from the National Medical Research Council of Singapore, Novo Nordisk and Roche Diagnostic; has served in advisory, consulting and trial leadership roles for Alnylam Pharma, AnaCardio AB, Applied Therapeutics, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Boston Scientific, Bristol Myers Squibb, Corteria, CPC Clinical Research, Cytokinetics, Eli Lilly, Impulse Dynamics, Intellia Therapeutics, Janssen Research and Development LLC, Medscape/WebMD Global LLC, Merck, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer, Radcliffe Group Ltd., Roche and U ( ); has patent no. PCT/SG2016/050217 pending and US patent nos 10,631,828 B1; US 10,702,247 B2; US 11,301,996 B2; US 11,446,009 B2; US 11,931,207 B2; US 12,001,939; and US 12,400,762 B2; and is a co-founder and non-executive director of U ( ). The employer of A.A.V. has received consultancy fees and/or research support from Anacardio (consultancy), AstraZeneca (consultancy), Bayer AG (consultancy and research support), Boehringer Ingelheim (consultancy and research support), Cardurion (consultancy), Corteria (consultancy), Eli Lilly (consultancy), Merck (consultancy), Novartis (consultancy), Novo Nordisk (consultancy and research support), QTsense (consultancy), Rycarma (consultancy) and Salubris (consultancy). B.C. has personal consulting fees from Alnylam, Bristol Myers Squibb, Cardior, Cardurion, Corvia, CVRx, Eli Lilly, Intellia, Rocket, Valo and has served on a data safety monitoring board for Novo Nordisk. T.G.N., A.R.R., C.K. and W.Z. are employees of Novartis. M.P.L. is a former employee of Novartis. G.M.F. has received research grants from NIH, Bayer, BMS, Novartis, Merck, Cytokinetics, Otsuka and CSL-Behring; he has acted as a consultant to Novartis, BMS, Cytokinetics, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Myovant, River2Renal and Whiteswell, and has served on clinical endpoint committees/data safety monitoring boards for Merck, Rocket Pharma and V-Wave.