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Article History

First Online: 12 May 2026

Competing interests

: P.W.F. has received consulting fees from Novo Nordisk, ABC Labs, Roche and Zoe Ltd, and travel support and speaker fees from AstraZeneca and Menarini Group. He has also received research grants (paid to his institution) from Boehringer Ingelheim, Novo Nordisk, Medtronic, Pfizer and Lilly as part of the Innovative Health Initiative of the European Union. He was an employee of the Novo Nordisk Foundation, a non-profit enterprise-owing foundation, from 2021 to 2024. P.W.F. chairs The Lancet Commission on Precision Health and co-chairs the NIDDK Heterogeneity of Diabetes Initiative. S.G.I.S. has received speaker fees from Novo Nordisk. C.L. declares no conflict of interest in relation to this work but acknowledges research funding and/or consulting fees (paid to their institution) from Eli Lilly, GSK, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer and Somalogic. C.W.l.R. serves on advisory boards and speaker panels of Novo Nordisk, Roche, Herbalife, Morphic Medical, Eli Lilly, Johnson & Johnson, Gila, Irish Life Health, Boehringer Ingelheim, Currax, Zealand Pharma, Keyron, AstraZeneca, Arrowhead Pharma, Wave, Amgen, AbbVie, Metsera, Nymble, Olympus and Rhythm Pharma. C.W.l.R. is the chair of the Irish Society for Nutrition and Metabolism; has received stock options as payment for scientific advisory board functions from Nymble; provides obesity clinical care in the My Best Weight clinic and Beyond BMI clinic, and is a co-owner of these clinics. N.J.W. declares no competing interests related to this work.